Russia+x+China


 * __ Russia __****__ and China 1914 – Present __**
 * 1. Read In Depth p.684 take brief notes and answer the questions (5 points)**


 * A number of factors accounted for the surges of revolutions that took place in the 20th century:
 * rural discontent - peasants were newly spurred by pressures of population growth, in addition to resentment towards big landowners. Modern state reforms had a tendency to increase taxes on peasantry, and traditional protests, such as banditry became more difficult.
 * underlying disruptions caused by the spread of the Industrial Revolution and Western-centered global market
 * handicraft producers forced out of work, as a result of machine-produced goods, and peasants, ie. those of central Mexico, lost their land to money lenders
 * in colonies, unemployed Western-educated African and Asian secondary school and college graduates became devoted to struggles for independence that promised dignity and decent jobs
 * Postwar conditions:
 * returning troops and neglected veterans provided shock troops for leftist revolutionaries and fascist pretenders
 * defeated states witnessed rapid decline of power to suppress internal enemies and floundered as their armies refused to defend them or join movements to overthrow
 * economic competition and military rivalries drew them into unwanted wars
 * intellectual climate:
 * notions of progress and belief in perfectibility of human society deeply influenced communist theorists, such as Marx, Lenin, Mao, and Ho Chi Minh
 * all sought to overthrow existing regimes that they considered exploitive and oppressive
 * deeply committed to building radically new societies that would bring justice and decent livelihood to previously downtrodden social groups, esp. working classes, peasantry, urban poor
 * visions of good life remained driving force for revolutionary efforts
 * capitalist societies developed welfare programs to curb social discontent --> could spiral into active protest
 * need to come to terms with Western influence and reassert greater national autonomy
 * Mexico, Russia, China all sought to reduce Western economic control and cultural influence, seeking alternative models
 * active anti-Western sentiment and attacks on Western investments
 * Questions:
 * 1) What internal and external forces weakened governments of Mexico and China in the opening decades of the 20th century and unleashed the forces of revolution?
 * 2) Rural discontent was an important factor in inciting revolution. Peasants were dissatisfied by state reforms that tended to increase taxes on the peasantry, and pressures of population growth led to disdain towards big landowners. The Western-centered, global market system served as a driving force for revolution. Handicraft producers lost jobs due to the influx of machine-produced goods, peasants lost land to moneylenders, and in colonies, Western-educated Africans and Asians became motivated by revolutionary currents to attain dignity and decent jobs. The postwar conditions were also factors in revolutionary sentiment. Neglected returning soldiers and veterans served as part of leftist revolutionaries and fascist pretenders. Defeated states saw a decline in their power to suppress internal enemies.
 * 3) What key social groups were behind the revolutions in Mexico, China, and Russia, and why were they so important in each case?
 * 4) Peasants were dissatisfied with the state, in places like central Mexico, where they lost land. In the colonies, Western-educated African and Asian graduates worked to gain dignity and decent jobs. Urban laborers, who were infuriated by the work and living conditions in Russia and China, provided key support for revolutionary parties. Neglected returning soldiers and veterans served as part of leftist revolutionaries and fascist pretenders. Communist theorists and other revolutionary ideologues sought to overthrow existing regimes that they viewed exploitive and oppressive.
 * 5) What similarities and differences can you identify amongst these three early revolutions in the 20th century?
 * 6) All three of the early revolutions were fueled by the same factors; rural discontent, Western-centered global market system, postwar conditions, intellectual climate, and the need to come to terms with Western influence and reassertion of national autonomy.

** Russia **


 * 2. Take outline notes on Russia (25 points)**
 * 1.) Revolution in Russia p681-685**
 * **MI: In March 1917, strikes and food riots erupted in St. Petersburg. They were spurred by wartime misery, including painful food shortages and protested conditions of early industrialization set against incomplete rural reform and an unresponsive political system and assumed military proportions. Rioters called for food and new political regime.**
 * for 8 months, a liberal provisional government struggled to rule the country
 * 1789 - Revolution - Russian revolutionary leaders, such as **Alexander Kerensky**, were eager to see genuine parliamentary rule, religious and other freedoms, and a host of political and legal changes
 * took place in WWI --> first leaders were eager to mantain the war effort, which linked them with democratic France and Britian
 * when the nation was tired of war, prolongation worsened economic conditions and decreased public morale
 * liberal leaders held back from massive land reforms expected by peasant class, b/c they respected existing conditions and did not want to disrupt social conditions prior to new political structure
 * November = second revolution, expelling liberal leadership and brought on the power of the radical Bolshevik wing of the Social Democratic Party(Communist Party), and Lenin
 * Revolution = godsend to Lenin, who had been anticipating communist revolt b/c of power of international capitalism and its creation of a massive proletariat, even in a society that had not directly passed through middle class rule
 * Lenin gained strength amongst urban workers' councils in major cities, which related to his belief that revolution should come not from literal mass action, but from tightly organized cells
 * once liberals toppled, Lenin and Bolsheviks faced immediate problems
 * handled by signing humiliating peace treaty w/ Germany and giving up huge sections of western Russia in return for end of hostilities --> nullified by German defeat by Western allies, but Russia ignore Versailles treaty
 * much of the territory converted into nation states
 * revived Poland built heavily on Russia controlled land, along with new, small Baltic states
 * early end was vital for consolidation of Lenin's power
 * even though Lenin and Bolsheviks gained a majority role in leading urban soviets, they were not the most popular revolutionary part, and this issue was the second problem faced at the end of 1917
 * November seizure of power led to creation of the Council of People's Commissars, drawn from Soviets across the nation and headed by Lenin, to govern the state --> parliamentary election already called, creating majority for Social Revolutionary Party, emphasizing peasant support and rural reform
 * Lenin shut down parliament and replaced it with Bolshevik dominated Congress of Soviets
 * pressed Social Revolutionaries to disband
 * Russia was to have no Western-style multiparty system, but instead, a Bolshevik monopoly
 * foreign hostility
 * domestic resistance
 * world's leading nations appalled by communist success, which threatened principles of property and freedom
 * hurt by Russian renunciation of foreign debt
 * resulted in attempt at intervention, recalling attacks on France in 1792
 * Britain, France, US, Japan sent troops, which heightened Russian suspicion of outsiders
 * Western powers pulled out quickly, as well as Japan
 * had little effect on Russia, otherwise
 * 1918-1921- internal civil war
 * tsarist generals, religious peasants, and minority nationalities banded together in opposition of communist regime
 * efforts supplemented by economic distress and heightened by earlier communist measures
 * Lenin decreed redistribution of land to peasantry and launched nationalization/ state take over of basic industry
 * many already landed peasants resented loss of property and incentive, and thus decreased food production sent to markets
 * industrial nationalization created more economic hardship
 * famine and unemployment created more economic hardship than war
 * fueled civil war tendencies
 * workers revolted in cities
 * Stabilization of Russia's Communist Regime:**
 * **MI: After the revolution, order was restored by several key foundations.**
 * construction of powerful army under leadership of Leon Trotsky, who recruited able generals and masses of loyal conscripts
 * **Red Army** - beneficial of 2 ongoing sources of strength for communist Russia:
 * a willingness to use people of humble background but great ability who could rise to great heights under the new order
 * ability to inspire mass loyalty in the name of an end to previous injustice and promise of brighter future
 * economic disarray reduced by Lenin's 1921 introduction of **New Economic Policy**
 * promised considerable freedom of action for small business owners and peasant landowners
 * state continued to set basic economic policies, but its efforts were combined with individual initiative
 * under this temp. policy, food production recovered and regime gained time to prepare more durable structures of the communist system
 * 1923- Bolshevik revolution accomplished
 * new capital: Moscow
 * new constitution set up federal system of socialist republics and recognized multinational character of the nation, which was called the Union of Socialist Republics
 * dominance of ethnic Russians was preserved in the central state apparatus, but certain groups, ie. Jews, were not given distinct representation
 * apparatus of central state was mixture of reality and appearance:
 * Supreme Soviet- many trappings of a parliament and was elected by universal suffrage
 * competition in election normally prohibited, meaning that the communist party easily controlled the body, which served mainly to ratify decisions taken by party's central executive
 * parallel systems of central bureaucracy and party bureaucracy confirmed communists' monopoly on power and ability to control major decisions from the center
 * over time, Soviet political system elaborated:
 * 1930s- human rights
 * reestablishment of authoritarian system
 * Soviet Experimentation:**
 * **MI: The mid-1920s was an experimental period in Soviet history, due to jockeying of power at the top of the power pyramid. Youth movements, women's groups, and organizations for workers all actively debated problems in their social environment and directions for future planning. Workers were able to influence management practices; women's leaders helped create legal equality and new educational and work opportunities for their constituents.**
 * one key to this atmosphere: rapid spread of education prompted by government and educational and propaganda activities sponsored by various adult groups
 * new educational system intended to reshape popular culture away from older peasant traditions and religion towards beliefs in Communist political analysis and science
 * access to new information, new modes of inquiry, and new values led to controversy
 * Soviet regime faced other issues in 1920s:
 * rivalries amongst leaders at top
 * Lenin = ill and died in 1924
 * led to leadership gap
 * Petersburg = Leningrad
 * numerous key lieutenants fought for power, including Red Army's Trotsky and Communist party stalwart of worker origins, who took the name **Stalin**, meaning steel
 * Stalin emerged as undisputed leader of Soviet state
 * Stalin represented strongly nationalist version of communism
 * at the revolution's outset, Lenin believed that Russian rising would be a prelude to sweeping communist upheaval throughout the Western industrial world
 * many revolutionary leaders actively encouraged communist parties in the West and set up a **Comintern**, Communist International Office, to guide the process
 * revolutionary leadership pulled back to concentrate on Russian developments, building "socialism oin one country"
 * Stalin represented the anti-Western strain in Russian tradition
 * rival leaders killed/ expelled
 * rival visions of revolution downplayed
 * accelerated industrial development, while attacking peasant land ownership with **collectivization** program
 * Stalinism in the Soviet Union p698-703**
 * **MI: Soviet Union was buffered from the Great Depression by its separate economy. Soviet leaders made much of the nation's ongoing industrial growth, even when Western economies collapsed, but the 1930s saw a tightening of the communist system under Stalin, triggering authoritarian responses in other societies. **
 * Stalin's agenda:
 * make S.U. into fully industrial society and to do so under full control of state rather than private initiative and individual ownership of producing property
 * reversed experimental mood of 1920s, incl. tolerance for small private businesses and wealthy peasant farmers
 * wanted modernization with revolutionary, noncapitalist twist
 * Economic policies:**
 * **MI: In 1928, a massive program to collectivize agriculture began. Collectivization meant the creation of large, staterun farms.**
 * communist party agitators pressed peasants to join in collectives
 * the collectives offered the chance to mechanize agriculture more effectively, as collective farms could group scarce equipment, such as tractors and harvesters
 * collectivization allowed for more efficient control over peasants, reflecting a traditional reluctance to leave peasants to their own devices
 * gov. control was importance b/c of Stalin's hopes for a speedup of industrialization require that resources be taken from peasants, through taxation, to prove capital for industry


 * peasant response to collectivization was mixed
 * many laborers, resentful of kulak wealth, accepted the opportunity to have more direct access to to land
 * most kulaks refused to voluntarily cooperate, so livestock were often destroyed
 * famine spawned from Stalin's insistence to press forward
 * millions of kulaks killed/ deported to Siberia in 1930s --> most brutal oppressions of the century
 * rural resistance collapsed and production began to increase again
 * removal of kulaks weakened opportunities to oppose Stalin's increasingly authoritarian hold
 * collective farms = not complete success
 * despite allowing peasants small plots of land and job security and propagandizing by Communist party members, it created atmosphere of factorylike discipline and rigid planning from above that antagonized many peasants
 * allowed for few incentives for special efforts and often complicated a smooth flow of supplies and equipment
 * agricultural production remained a large weakness in Soviet economy
 * demanded higher % of labor force than was common
 * collective farms allowed normally adequate food supplies once the transition period ended
 * free excess workers channeled into ranks of urban labor
 * 1920-30s - influx of unskilled workers into cities
 * **five-year plans**- began under state commission to set priorities straight for industrial development, incl. output levels and new facilities
 * gov. constructed massive factories in metallurgy, mining, and electric power to make S.U. an industrial country independent of Western-dominated world banking and trading patterns
 * slighted consumer goods production
 * Stalin also sought to create an alternative to private business ownership, as well as profit-oriented market mechanisms of the West
 * relied on formal, centralized source allocation to distribute equipment and supplies
 * led to many bottlenecks and considerable waste
 * in 2 five year plans to 1937, Soviet output of machinery and metal products grew 14-fold
 * Toward and Industrial Society:**
 * **MI: Industrialization in the S.U. presented many similar results to those in the West: crowded cities, factory discipline, peasant-derived workforce, and incentive procedures.**
 * housing inadequate --> crowding
 * factory discipline --> strict, w/ new habits in peasant-derived workforce
 * incentive procedures introduced to motivate workers to higher production
 * capable workers = bonuses
 * communist party est. network of welfare services
 * workers had meeting houses and recreational programs
 * Soviet industry directed from the top, w/ no legal outlet for worker grievances
 * outlawed strikes, sole trade union movement controlled by the party -- worker concerns were studied, and identified problems were addressed
 * S.U. under Stalin used force and authority but also recognized importance of maintaining worker support so laborers were consulted informally
 * Totalitarian Rule:**
 * **MI: Stalinism created new controls over intellectual life**
 * in arts: insisted on uplifting styles that differed from modern art themes of the West
 * artists and writers who did not adhere were exiled to Siberian prison camps and party loyalists, like Writers Union helped ferret out dissidents
 * **Socialist realism** was dominant school
 * emphasized heroic idealization of workers, soldiers, and peasants
 * science was controlled
 * Stalin combined his industrialization program with new intensification of government police procedures
 * used party and state apparatus to monopolize power
 * real and imagined opponents of his vision of communism were executed
 * new outlets were monopolized by state and party and informal meetings also risked a visit from ubiquitous secret police, renamed MVD in 1934
 * party congresses and meetings of executive committee, or **Politburo**, became rubber stamps, and a atmosphere of terror spread
 * Stalin's purges, which included top army officials, weakened the nation's ability to respond to growing foreign policy problem, esp. rise of Hitler
 * Soviet diplomatic initiatives after 1917 revolution were modest, due to intense concentration on internal development
 * diplomatic relations w/ other nations gradually reestablished as the fact of communist leadership was accepted and S.U. allowed into League of Nations
 * Eastern Europe after WWII p750-759**
 * **MI:Soviet Russia expanded its effective empire. Amid new challenges, the Soviet system maintained distinctive political controls.**
 * The Soviet Union as Superpower**
 * **MI: By 1945, Soviet foreign policy had several ingredients; desire to regain tsarist boundaries fused with traditional interest in expansion and in playing an active role in European diplomacy.**
 * revulsion at Germany's two invasion contributed to a desire to establish buffer zones under Soviet control
 * Soviet industrialization and WWII pushing westward led to Russian emergence as world power
 * bolstered by industry and weapons development, along with strategic alliances and links to communist movements
 * Soviet participation in late phases of war against Japan provided opportunity to seize some islands in northern Pacific
 * est. protectorate over communist regime of N. Korea to match US protectorate in S. Korea
 * Soviet aid in Communist party in China brought new influence to the country and in 1970s, SU gained new ally in Communist Vietnam, providing naval bases for Soviet fleet
 * Soviets gained leverage in Middle East, Africa, and parts of Latin America b/c of growing military and economic strength
 * strength confirmed by development of atomic bomb and hydrogen bombs from 1949 onward
 * deployment of missiles and naval forces
 * The New Soviet Empire in Eastern Europe:**
 * **MI: As a superpower, the SU developed increasing worldwide influence with trade and cultural missions on all inhabited continents and military alliances with several Asian, Africa, and Latin American nations. The most evident example is in eastern Europe, where the Soviets pushed the sphere of influence further than to the west than before, initiating the cold war.**
 * small nations of eastern Europe had undergone a trouble period b/w world wars
 * failed to est. vigorous independent economies or solid political systems except Czechoslovakia
 * by 1945, dominant force in eastern Europe = Soviet Union, pushing back the Germans and remaking the map
 * achieved through Soviet military power and collaboration with local communist movements in the nations
 * opponent parties were crushed and noncommunist regimes forced out by 1948
 * exceptions:
 * Greece- moved toward Western camp in diplomatic alignment and political and social systems
 * Albania- formed rigid Stalinist regime that brought it into disagreement with Soviet, post-Stalinist leaders
 * Yugoslavia- communist regime formed under resistance leader Tito quickly proclaimed its neutrality in cold war, resisting Soviet direction and trying to form more responsive version of communist system
 * after Soviet takeover, a standard development dynamic emerged throughout most of eastern Europe by early 1950s
 * Soviet sponsored regimes attacked possible rivals for power, incl. Roman Catholic church
 * mass education and propaganda outlets developed quickly
 * collectivization of agriculture ended large estate system, w/ out creating property owning peasantry
 * industrialization pushed through 5-year plans
 * Soviet and eastern European trading zone became separate from larger trends of international commerce
 * formation of NATO in western Europe:
 * eastern European nations were enfolded in common defense alliance- Warsaw Pact, and economic planning organization
 * Soviet troops stationed in most Eastern European states:
 * to confront western alliance
 * ensure continuation of new regimes and loyalty to common cause
 * despite responding to many social problems in smaller nations of eastern Europe, and desire of SU to expand it influence and guard against German or more general Western attack, the new Soviet system created obvious tensions:
 * tight control in eastern Germany = workers' rising in 1953 --> repressed by Soviet troops
 * **Berlin Wall**- 1961, build by Soviets to stem flow of widespread exodus
 * barbed wire fences and armed patrols regulated entrance
 * 1956 = relaxation of Stalinism within Soviet Union, creating hopes that controls might be loosened
 * more liberal communist leaders came about in Hungary and Poland
 * had massive popular backing, seeking to create states that were communist and would allow greater diversity and more freedom from Soviet domination
 * in Poland: Soviets accepted new leader more popular w/ Polish people
 * allowed to stop agricultural collectivization, est. widespread peasant ownership in its place
 * Catholic church: now symbol of Polish independence gained greater tolerance
 * new regime in Hungary cruelly crushed by Soviet army and hardline Stalinist leadership set up in its place
 * Soviet control over eastern Europe loosened overall:
 * eastern European govs. were given freer hand in economic policy and were allowed limited room to experiment with greater cultural freedom
 * multiple countries began to outstrip prosperity of SU itself
 * contacts w/ West increased, with greater trade and tourism
 * Eastern Europe remained w/ SU as somewhat separate economic bloc in world trade but had room for little diversity
 * individual nations, such as Hungary, developed intellectual vigor and experimented with less centralized economic planning
 * communist political system remained at full force
 * limits of experimentations in eastern Europe were brought home again in 1968 when a more liberal regime came to power in Czechoslovakia
 * Soviet army responded
 * expelled reformers and est. rigid leader
 * a challenge arose from Poland in 1970s, in the form of widespread Catholic unrest and independent labor movement called **Solidarity**, against the backdrop of stagnant economy and low morale
 * 1980s: eastern Europe had been transformed by decades of communist rule:
 * national diversity remained, apparent in both industrial and political levels
 * Catholic Poland differed from neo-Stalinist Bulgaria or Romania
 * discontents remained:
 * communist-imposed social revolution brought considerable economic change and real social upheaval, through abolition of once dominant aristocracy and remaking of peasant masses through collectivization, new systems of mass education, and industrial, urban growth
 * expansion of Soviet influence answered important foreign policy goals:
 * Soviets retained military presence in Europe among other things reduced anxiety of another German threat
 * Eastern European allies aided Soviet ventures in other parts of the world, providing supplies and advisors for activities in Africa, Latin America, and elsewhere
 * need for continued military presence may have diverted Soviet leaders from emphasizing expansionist ambitions in other directions
 * Evolution of Domestic Policies:**
 * **MI: Within the Soviet Union the Stalinist system remained intact during the initial postwar years. The war encouraged growing use of nationalism as well as appeals for communist loyalty, as millions of Russians responded to new foreign threat. These elements were maintained throughout the Cold War, with media condemning the US as an evil and distorted power.**
 * many Soviets, fearful of a new war that the US aggressiveness seemed to them to threaten, agreed that strong gov. authority remained necessary
 * helped sustain difficult rebuilding efforts after the war, which followed quickly, allowing the SU to regain its postwar industrial capacity and proceed, in the 1950s, to high annual growth rates
 * also helped support Stalin's efforts to shield the Soviet populations from extensive contact with foreigners or foreign ideas
 * isolation: strict limits on travel, outside media, or uncensored glimpse of outside world
 * Stalin's political structure emphasized central controls and omnipresent party bureaucracy, tweaked to the specifications of Stalin, and by his endemic suspiciousness
 * gov. and Communist party was expanded by Moscow-based direction of national economy, along with extension of welfare, education, police operations, and expanded bureaucracy
 * recruitment from ranks of peasant and worker families continued into the 1940s
 * educational opportunities allowed talented young people to rise from below
 * party membership was kept low
 * Soviet Culture: Promoting New Beliefs and Institutions:**
 * **MI: Rapid industrialization caused significant social change in eastern Europe. Tensions increased over relationships with Western culture.**
 * Soviet gov. maintained an active cultural agenda
 * declared war on Orthodox church and other religions soon after 1917, seeking to shape a secular population that would maintained a Marxist, scientific orthodoxy
 * vestigial church activities remained under tight government regulation
 * artistic and literary styles, and purely political writings were carefully monitored to ensure adherence to party line
 * educational system: used to train and recruit technicians and bureaucrats and to create a loyal, right-thinking citizenry
 * mass ceremonies, ie. May Day parades, stimulated devotion to the state and communism
 * did not abolish Orthodox church outright, but greatly limited church's outreach
 * church was barred from giving religious instruction to anyone under 18, and state schools vigorously preached the doctrine that any religion was merely superstition
 * church loyalties persisted amongst elderly minority
 * limited freedom of religion for Jewish minority, holding up Jews as enemies to the state --> manipulation of traditional Russian anti-Semitism
 * Muslim minority given greater latitude, under circumstance of full loyalty to the regime
 * all in all, traditional religious orientation of Soviet society declined in favor of scientific outlook and Marxist explanations of history in terms of class conflict
 * Soviet state attacked modern Western styles of art and literature
 * called them decadent, but maintained some earlier Western styles appropriated as Russian
 * Russian orchestra performed classical music
 * in arts, socialist realist principles spread to eastern Europe after WWII, particularly in public displays and monuments
 * literature remained diverse and creative, despite official controls sponsored by communist Writer's Union
 * wrote of WWII woes, sympathy of people, patriotism, and concern for Russian soul
 * sometimes writings faced official disapproval
 * their freedom depended on leadership mood; censorship eased after Stalin and then tightened again somewhat in the late 1960-70s
 * authors critical of aspects of Soviet regime maintained distinctive Russian values
 * **Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn** - exiled to US after publication of his trilogy of Siberian prison camps
 * along w/ interest in the arts and a genuine diversity of expressions despite official party lines, Soviet culture continued to emphasize science and social science:
 * scientists had great prestige and had much power
 * social scientific work, highlighted by Marxist theory, created important analysis of current trends and history
 * scientific work was heavily funded --> Soviet scientists generated a number of fundamental discoveries in physics, chemistry, and mathematics
 * sometimes, scientists felt the heavy hand of official disapproval
 * biologists and psychiatrists were urged to reject Western theories that called human rationality and social progress into question
 * Freudianism banned
 * Stalin biologists who overemphasized uncontrollability of genetic evolution were jailed
 * Economy and Society:**
 * **MI: The Soviet Union became a fully industrial society between the 1920s and the 1950s. Rapid growth of manufacturing and rise of urban populations to over 50% of the total were measures of said development.**
 * eastern European modernization had a number of distinctive features:
 * state control of virtually all economic sectors
 * imbalance b/w heavy industrial goods and consumer items
 * SU lagged in priorities it placed on consumer goods, not only in Western staples, such as automobiles, but also housing construction and simple items, such as bathtub plugs
 * consumer-goods industries = poorly funded, not as successful as manufacturing sector
 * Soviet needed to amass capital for development in poor society
 * explained the inattention to consumer goods, and the need to create a society that remained poorer overall, a massive armaments industry to rival that of the US
 * despite desire of beat the West in affluent society development, eastern Europe did not develop the kind of consumer society as the West
 * living standards improved and extensive welfare services provided security for some groups
 * prominent condition in Soviet life: complaints about poor consumer products, long lines to obtain desired goods
 * Soviet industrialization caused an unusual degree of environmental damage:
 * drive to produce at all costs created bleak zones around factories, where waste was dumped, and in agricultural and mining areas
 * up to 1/4 of all Soviet territory was environmentally degraded --> severe health damages for people in affected areas
 * Communist system throughout eastern Europe failed to resolved problems with agriculture
 * capital might have gone into farming equipment went to armaments and heavy industry instead
 * arduous climate of norther Europe and Asia led to constant attempts to spread grain production into Siberia
 * became evident that eastern European peasantry continued to find constraints and lack of individual incentive in collectivized agriculture
 * eastern European society expressed a number of themes of contemporary Western social history, b/c of the shared fact of industrial life
 * work rhythms became similar
 * industrialization brought massive efforts to speed up the pace of work and to introduce regularized supervision
 * the incentive systems designed to encourage able workers resembled those used in Western factories
 * along w/ similar work habits, came similar leisure activities:
 * sports, films, television, family vacations, leisure, commercialism
 * eastern European social structure grew closer to that of the West:
 * continued to have importance of rural population and despite the impact of Marxist theory
 * tendency to divide urban society along class lines
 * b/w workers and better-educated managerial middle class
 * wealth divisions remained less greater than in the West, but perquisites of managers and professional peoples set them off from standard of living of the masses
 * Soviet family reacted to some of the same pressures of industrialization as Western family
 * massive movements to cities and crowded housing enhanced nuclear family unit, as ties to a wider network of relatives loosened
 * birthrate dropped
 * official Soviet policy on birthrates varied for a time, but basic pressures became similar to those of the West
 * falling infant death rates, with improved diets and medical care, along with long periods of schooling and increase in consumer expectations, made large families less desirable
 * wartime dislocations led to decline in birthrate
 * some minority groups maintained high birth rates than majority ethnic group
 * ethnic Russians, a differential that caused concern about maintaining Russian cultural dominance
 * patterns of childrearing showed similarities to West
 * parents, esp. in middle class, devoted great attention to promoting their children's education and ensuring good jobs for the future
 * children were more strictly disciplined than in West
 * emphasis on authority
 * Soviets never afforded the domestic idealization of women
 * most married women worked --> low wages
 * dominated some professions, such as medicine
 * Soviet propagandists took pride in constructive role of women and their official equality, but there were signs that many women suffered burdens from demanding jobs w/ little help from husbands at home
 * De-Stalinization:**
 * **MI: The rigid government apparatus created by Stalin and sustained after WWII by frequent arrests and exiles to forced labor camps was put to test after Stalin's death in 1953. The results loosened Stalinist cultural isolation.**
 * one-man rule created massive succession problems, and jockeying for power developed amongst aspiring candidates
 * the system, however, held together, and years of bureaucratic experience had given most Soviet leaders a taste for coordination and compromise, along with reluctance to strike out in radical new directions that might cause controversy or arouse resistance from one of the key power blocs within the state
 * Stalin's death was followed by a ruling committee that balanced interests groups; the army, police, and party apparatus --> encouraged conservatism, as each bureaucratic sector defended its existing prerogatives
 * 1956- **Nikita Khrushchev** rose from the committee pack and gained power
 * attacked Stalinism for concentration of power and arbitrary dictatorship
 * in speech to Communist party congress, he condemned Stalin for his treatment of political opposition, for his narrow interpretations of Marxist doctrine and his failure to adequately prepare for WWII
 * de-Stalinization campaign suggested more tolerant political climate and some decentralization of decision making.
 * little concrete institutional reform occurred
 * political trials became less common, overt police repression eased
 * few intellectuals were allowed to raise new issues, dealing with the purges and other Stalinist excesses
 * critics of the regime were less likely to be executed and more likely to be sent to psychiatric institutions or exiled in the West or confined to house arrest
 * party control and centralized economic planning remained intact
 * planned a major extension of state-directed initiative by opening new Siberian land to cultivation; his failure in this costly effort, combined with his antagonizing many Stalinist loyalists, led to his downfall
 * after de-Stalinization furor and Khrushchev's fall from power, SU remained stable into the 1980s, verging at times on stagnant
 * economic growth continued but with no breakthroughs and with recurrent worries over sluggish productivity and over periodically inadequate harvests, which forced expensive grain deals with Western nations, including the US
 * cold war policies eased a little after death of Stalin
 * Khrushchev flaunted Soviet ability to outdo the West at its own industrial game
 * also produced one of the most intense moments of the cold war with the US, as he probed for vulnerabilities
 * Soviets installed missiles in Cuba, yielding only to firm response form US in 1962 by removing the missiles but not their support of the communist regime on the island
 * had no desire for war, even launching a peaceful coexistence
 * hoped to beat West economically and actively expanded Soviet space program; Sputnik- first space satellite sent in 1957
 * lowered cold war tensions with the West allowed small influx of Western tourists by the 1960s and greater access to Western media and a variety of cultural exchanges, which gave some Soviets a renewed sense of contact with a wider world and restored some earlier ambiguities about the nation's relationship to Western standards
 * Soviet leadership continued up a steady military buildup, adding increasingly sophisticated rocketry and bolstered by its unusually successful space program
 * maintained a lead in manned space flights in late 1980s
 * in both space and arms race, the SU demonstrated great technical ability along with a willingness to settle for somewhat simpler systems than those attempted by the US
 * active sports program --> many victories in Olympics showed the SU's new ability to compete on an international scale and its growing pride in international achievements
 * the nation faced numerous new foreign policy problems, although maintaining superpower status:
 * mid-1950s onward, the SU experienced a growing rift with China
 * successful acquisition of many other nations, such as Egypt, often turned sour, though these developments were often balanced by new alignments elsewhere
 * rise of Muslim awareness in 1970s deeply troubled the Soviet Union, with its own large Muslim minority
 * led to 1979 invasion of Afghanistan, to promote a friendly puppet regime, which bogged down amid guerilla warfare into the late 1980s
 * problems of work motivation and discipline loomed in SU by 1980s, after the period of building an industrial society under Stalinist exhortation and threat
 * many workers found little reason for great diligence b/c of highly bureaucratized and centralized work plans
 * high rates of alcoholism --> high death rates, burdened work performance and caused great concern to Soviet leaders
 * problems of youth agitation also arose
 * Explosion of the 1980s and 1990s p841-847**
 * **MI: from 1985 onward, the Soviet Union entered a period of intensive reform, soon matched by new political movements in eastern Europe that effectively dismantled the Soviet empire.**
 * initially triggered by the deteriorating Soviet economic performance, which were intensified by the costs of military rivalry with the US.
 * observers believe that public attitudes by the 1980s were shaped less by terror, and more by satisfaction with the SU's world prestige and the improvements the communist regime had fostered in education and welfare
 * economy was going towards standstill
 * forced industrialization had produced extensive environmental deterioration throughout eastern Europe
 * half of all agricultural land was endangered by late 1980s
 * mover 20% of Soviet citizens lived in regions of ecological disaster
 * rates and severity of respiratory and other diseases rose, impairing morale and economic performance
 * infant mortality rose
 * industrial production starting to stagnate and drop due to rigid central planning, health problems, and poor worker morale
 * growing inadequacy of housing and consumer goods resulted, further lowering motivations
 * as economic growth stopped, % of resources allocated to military production rose, toward 1/3 of all national income
 * this reduced fund available to other investments or consumer needs
 * The Age of Reform:**
 * **MI: Despite the Soviet system's heavy bureaucratization, it was not changeless. Problems and dissatisfactions, though controlled, could provoke response beyond renewed repression. **
 * after a succession of leaders whose age or health precluded major initiatives, the SU brought in a new official in 1985
 * **Mikhail Gorbachev** renewed some of the earlier attacks on Stalinist rigidity and replaced some of the old-line party bureaucrats
 * conveyed new, more Western style, dressing in fashionable clothes, holding open press conferences, and allowing the Soviet media to engage in active debate and report on problems as well as success
 * further altered the Soviet modified cold war stance
 * urged reduction in nuclear armament and in 1987, negotiated a new agreement with US that limited medium range missiles in Europe
 * ended war in Afghanistan and brought Soviet troops home
 * internally, Gorbachev proclaimed a policy of **glasnost**, or openness, which implied new freedom to comment and criticize
 * pressed for reduction in bureaucratic inefficiency and unproductive labor in Soviet economy
 * encouraged more decentralized decision making and use of some market incentives to stimulate greater output
 * strong limits on political freedom persisted
 * in many ways, Gorbachev's policies constituted a return to characteristic ambivalence about the West
 * reduced Soviet isolation while continuing to criticize aspects of Western political and social structure
 * hoped to use some Western management techniques and was open to certain Western styles without intending to abandon basic control of communist state
 * Gorbachev sought to open the SU to fuller participation in the world economy
 * brought symbolic changes; opening McDonald's restaurant in Moscow
 * Gorbachev's initial policies had immediate effects:
 * keynote of reform program was **perestroika**: economic reconstructing, which Gorbachev considered to be leeway for private ownership and decentralized control in industry and agriculture
 * farmers could now lease land for 50 years, w/ rights of inheritance, and industrial concerns authorized to buy from either private or state operations
 * foreign investment encouraged
 * pressed for reductions in Soviet military commitments, through agreements with US on troop reductions and limitations on nuclear weaponry, in order to free resources for consumer goods industries
 * urged more self-help among Soviets, ie. reduction of drinking
 * politically, Gorbachev encouraged new constitution in 1988
 * gave considerable power to new parliament, the Congress of People's Deputies, and abolishing Communist monopoly on elections
 * important opposition groups developed both inside and outside the party, pressing Gorbachev b/w radicals who wanted a faster pace of reform and conservative hard-liners
 * was elected to a new, powerful presidency of SU in 1990
 * reform amid continued economic stagnations provoked agitation among minority nationalities in SU, from 1988 onward
 * Muslims and Armenian Christians rioted in the south, both against each other and against the central state
 * Baltic nationalist and other European minorities also stirred, insisting on full independence, some for greater autonomy
 * Dismantling the Soviet Empire:**
 * **MI: Gorbachev's new approach, including his desire for better relations w/ Western powers, prompted more definitive results outside the S.U. than within, as the smaller states of eastern Europe uniformly pushed for greater independence and internal reforms.**
 * Bulgaria pushed towards economic liberalization in 1987, but was held back by Soviets
 * pressure resumed in 1989, as the party leader was ousted and free elections were arranged
 * Hungary changed leadership in 1988 and installed a noncommunist president
 * new constitution and free elections planned
 * Communist party = Socialist
 * Poland = noncommunist gov. in 1988 and moved quickly to dismantle the staterun economy
 * Solitary movement became dominant political force
 * East Germany displaced its communist gov. in 1989, expelling key leaders and moving rapidly toward unification with West Germany
 * Berlin Wall dismantled
 * 1900= noncommunist win free election
 * 1991 = German unification --> sign of collapse of postwar Soviet foreign policy
 * 1989 - Czechoslovakia installed new government
 * led by playwright and sought to introduce free elections and more market-driven economy
 * although mass demonstrations played a key role in many of these political upheavals, only Romania experienced outright violence
 * authoritarian communist leader was swept out by force
 * Bulgaria --> communist party retained considerable power and under new leadership, reforms moved less rapidly than in Hungary and Czechoslovakia
 * same in Albania, where unreconstructed Stalinist regime was dislodged and a more flexible communist leadership installed
 * new divergences in the nature and extent of reform in eastern Europe was worsened by clashes among nationalities, as in the S.U.
 * change and uncertainty brought older attachments to the fore
 * Romanians and ethnic Hungarians clashed; Bulgarians attacked a Turkish minority left over from Ottoman period
 * 1991 = Yugoslavian communist regime came under attack and civil war entailed from disputes among nationalities
 * Gorbachev reversed postwar imperialism
 * in many cases, esp. Hungary, Soviet troops were rapidly withdrawn, and generally seemed unlikely that a repressive attempt to reestablish an empire would be possible
 * new contacts w/ Western nations, ie. European Economic Community/ European Union, seemed to promist further realignment in the future
 * Renewed Turmoil in 1990s**
 * **MI: Uncertainties of the situation within the Soviet Union were confirmed in the summer of 1991, when an attempted coup was mounted by military and police elements.**
 * Gorbachev's presidency and democratic decentralization were both threatened
 * massive popular demonstrations asserted the strong democratic current that had developed in the S.U. since 1986
 * in the aftermath of the coup, Gorbachev's authority was weakened
 * leadership of key republics, ie. Russian Republic, were strengthened
 * 3 Baltic states used the occasion to gain full independence though economic links w/ S.U. remained
 * older republics sought independence
 * by end of 1991, leaders of major republics, including Russia's **Boris Yeltsin**, proclaimed the end of the Soviet Union
 * = commonwealth of leading republics, including economically crucial Ukraine
 * Gorbachev fell from power, and leadership was taken over by Yeltsin, who as president of Russia and early renouncer of communism, emerged as the leading political figure
 * used force to bring Russia's parliament under some control
 * former S.U. gave way to loose Commonwealth of Independent States, which won tentative agreement from most of the independent republics
 * tensions surfaced about economic coordination amid rapid dismantling of state controls, about control of military, where Russia sought predominance, including nuclear control amid challenges from Ukraine and Kazakhstan
 * Russian leaders hesitated to convert to a full market system lest transitional disruption further antagonize the population
 * by late 1990s, leadership of Yeltsin deteriorated as the economy performed badly
 * individual profiteers made much profit, as Yeltsin's health worsened
 * bitter civil war erupted b/w Muslim region of Chechnya: terrorist attacks by the rebels and brutal military repression seemed to feed each other
 * new president, **Vladimir Putin,** rose to power in 1999
 * vowed to clean up corruption and install more effective gov. controls over separate provinces
 * declared his commitment to democracy and a free press but also sponsored new attacks on dissident television stations and newspapers
 * reformists able to voice concerns, but Putin tightened his hold on state and media, also attacking independent-minded business leaders
 * resisted appeals to compromise on Chechnya revolt

3. Complete a leadership analysis of //__either__// Vladimir Lenin, **Joseph Stalin** or Nikita Khrushchev (5 points)

>>> >>>> >>>> >>>> >>>> > >> >> || external source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Stalin
 * Name of Leader: Joseph Stalin ||
 * Lifespan: 18 December 1878 – 5 March 1953 || Title: first General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee, Broseph Stalin ||
 * Country/region: Soviet Union || Years in Power:
 * **Chairman of the Council of Ministers:** 6 May 1941 – 5 March 1953
 * **General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union:** 3 April 1922 – 16 October 1952
 * **People's Commissar for the Defense of the Soviet Union:** 19 July 1941 – 25 February 1946
 * first General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee: 1922-1953 ||
 * Political, Social, & Economic Conditions Prior to Leaders Gaining Power:
 * 1789 - Revolution - Russian revolutionary leaders, such as Alexander Kerensky, were eager to see genuine parliamentary rule, religious and other freedoms, and a host of political and legal changes
 * Lenin in power; called for revolution
 * supported by Bolsheviks --> took over government, and established the Communist Party
 * faced issues when in power:
 * handled by signing humiliating peace treaty w/ Germany and giving up huge sections of western Russia in return for end of hostilities --> nullified by German defeat by Western allies, but Russia ignore Versailles treaty
 * <span style="margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">much of the territory converted into nation states
 * <span style="margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">revived Poland built heavily on Russia controlled land, along with new, small Baltic states
 * <span style="margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">early end was vital for consolidation of Lenin's power
 * November seizure of power led to creation of the Council of People's Commissars, drawn from Soviets across the nation and headed by Lenin, to govern the state --> parliamentary election already called, creating majority for Social Revolutionary Party, emphasizing peasant support and rural reform
 * Russian revolution produced backlash, such as foreign hostility and domestic resistance
 * 1918-1921- internal civil war
 * <span style="margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">tsarist generals, religious peasants, and minority nationalities banded together in opposition of communist regime
 * nationalization: created more hardship and famine
 * New Economic Policy
 * 1923 - Moscow = new Bolshevik capital
 * 1930s- human rights
 * reestablishment of authoritarian system ||
 * Ideology, Motivation, Goals:
 * Stalin represented strongly nationalist version of communism
 * Stalin represented the anti-Western strain in Russian tradition
 * <span style="margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">rival leaders killed/ expelled
 * <span style="margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">rival visions of revolution downplayed
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">wanted to make Soviet Union into fully industrial society and to do so under full control of state rather than private initiative and individual ownership of producing property
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">reversed experimental mood of 1920s, incl. tolerance for small private businesses and wealthy peasant farmers
 * wanted modernization with revolutionary, noncapitalist twist
 * favored collectivization
 * sought to create an alternative to private business ownership, as well as profit-oriented market mechanisms of the West
 * <span style="margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">relied on formal, centralized source allocation to distribute equipment and supplies
 * Soviet Union under Stalin used force and authority but also recognized importance of maintaining worker support so laborers were consulted informally
 * Stalin's political structure emphasized central controls and omnipresent party bureaucracy, tweaked to the specifications of Stalin, and by his endemic suspiciousness
 * shield the Soviet populations from extensive contact with foreigners or foreign ideas
 * Stalingrad
 * 1930s = removal of kulaks ||
 * Significant Actions & events During Term of Power
 * gains control of Socialist Party
 * encouraged communist parties in the West and set up a Comintern to guide the process
 * 1928 - a massive program to collectivize agriculture
 * five-year plans
 * gov. constructed massive factories in metallurgy, mining, and electric power to make S.U. an industrial country independent of Western-dominated world banking and trading patterns
 * controls over intellectual life:
 * Socialist realism was dominant school
 * <span style="margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">emphasized heroic idealization of workers, soldiers, and peasants
 * <span style="margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">science was controlled
 * sent opposition into exile, imprisonment, etc. ||
 * Short-Term effects:
 * Cold War policies eased following death of Stalin
 * collectivization continued
 * agriculture devastated
 * SU developed increasing worldwide influence with trade and cultural missions on all inhabited continents and military alliances with several Asian, Africa, and Latin American nations
 * efforts of following leaders
 * one-man rule created massive succession problems, and jockeying for power developed amongst aspiring candidates
 * Stalin's death was followed by a ruling committee that balanced interests groups; the army, police, and party apparatus
 * encouraged conservatism, as each bureaucratic sector defended its existing prerogatives || Long-Term Effects
 * <span style="margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">housing inadequate --> crowding
 * <span style="margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">factory discipline --> strict, w/ new habits in peasant-derived workforce
 * <span style="margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">incentive procedures introduced to motivate workers to higher production
 * capable workers = bonuses
 * communist party est. network of welfare services
 * workers had meeting houses and recreational programs
 * <span style="margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">eastern European modernization
 * <span style="margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">state control of virtually all economic sectors
 * <span style="margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">imbalance b/w heavy industrial goods and consumer items

4. Write a thesis statement for the following questions (10 points)**

<span style="border-bottom: 1.5pt solid; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; display: block; padding-bottom: 1pt; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">
 * <span style="margin: 0in 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Analyze the changes and continuities in Russian political structure from 1914 to the present
 * In 1914, Russian politics revolved around an autocracy, but this government was met with protest and discontent, and was thus ousted by a Social Democratic party. This Communist regime eventually exhibited prior authoritarian characteristics.
 * <span style="margin: 0in 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Analyze the changes in Russian Society from 1914 to the present
 * <span style="margin: 0in 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Russian society in 1914 was characterized by the desire to develop a culture independent of Western influences, but at time went on, there was increasing desire to become incorporated into the international system, as Soviet isolationism waned.

<span style="font-family: Tahoma; padding-bottom: 0in; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">China


 * 5. Take outline notes on China from 1912-Present (20 points)**
 * Toward Revolution in China 685-689**
 * **MI: The abdication of Puyi, the Manchu boy-emperor in 1912 marked an end to the struggle of the Qing dynasty to protect Chinese civilization from foreign invaders and revolutionary threats from within. Fall of the Qing enabled an extended struggle over which leader or movement would be able to capture the mandate to rule.**
 * internal divisions and foreign influences paved the way for ultimate victory of the Chinese Communist party under Mao Zedong
 * after fall of the Qing, the best-equipped for power were military commanders or warlords, who would dominate Chinese politics for the next 3 decades
 * warlords combined alliances to protect their own territories and to crush neighbors and annex their lands
 * most powerful of these cliques, centered in north China, was led by **Yuan Shikai,** who hoped to seize the vacated Manchu throne and found a new dynasty
 * by virtue of their wealth, merchants and bankers of coastal cities like Shanghai and Canton, made up a second power in post-Manchu China
 * sometimes, supportive of the urban civilian politicians and sometimes wary of them, university students and their teachers and independent intellectuals provided another factor in post-Qing politics
 * intellectuals and students played critical roles in shaping new ideologies to rebuild Chinese civilization, and were virtually defenseless in situation in which force was necessary to exert political influence
 * deeply divided, but strong secret societies vied for power
 * China's May Fourth Movement and Rise of Marxist Alternative:**
 * **MI: __Sun Yat-sen__ led the Revolutionary Alliance, a loose coalition of anti-Qing political groups that captained the 1911 revolt.**
 * Following the toppling of the Qing, Sun claimed that he and the parties of the alliance were rightful claimants to the mandate to rule all of China
 * was able to do little to assert civilian control in face of warlord oppression
 * Revolutionary Alliance had little power and no popular support outside urban trading centers of the coastal areas in central and south China
 * end of 1911 - alliance elected Sun as president, and est. a parliament modeled after those in Europe, and chose cabinets with great fanfare
 * their decisions had little effect on warlord-dominated China
 * acknowledging this, Sun reign presidency in favor of the northern warlord Yuan Shikai in 1912
 * Yuan appeared to have best chance to unify China under a single government
 * had sympathy for democratic aims of the alliance leaders but soon revealed true intentions
 * took foreign loans to build military forces and buy out most of the bureaucrats in capital of Beijing
 * when Sun and leaders of alliance called for second revolution to oust Yuan in years following 1912, he made use of military power and methods, such as assassinations to put down opposition
 * 1915 - evident that Yuan was on his way to becoming emperor
 * plans foiled by rivalry of warlords, republican nationalists like Sun, and growing influence of Japan in China
 * Japan entered the war on the side of Entente, as England's ally on the 1902 treaty
 * sought to est. dominant hold in China
 * 1915- presented Yuan with **21 Demands,** which, if Yuan accepted, would have reduced China to the status of a dependent protectorate
 * neither accepted nor rejected
 * one of his warlord rivals plotted his overthrow
 * hostility to Japan won the opposition widespread support and 1916 = Yuan's forced resignation
 * Japan solidified hold on northern China via control of German concessions in peace negotiations at Versailles in 1919
 * Chinese also allied themselves to Entente powers during the war and viewed this as betrayal on behalf of Entente powers
 * students and nationalist politicians organized mass demonstrations in numerous Chinese cities on May 4, 1919
 * protested against Japanese inroads and expanded to mass boycotts of Japanese goods
 * initially, the **May Fourth Movement** was aimed at transforming China into a liberal democracy
 * enunciated in several speeches, pamphlets, novels, and newspaper articles
 * Confucianism was ridiculed and rejected in favor of wholehearted acceptance of all that Western democracies had to offer
 * Western thinkers, such as Bertrand Russell and John Dewey toured China, praising democracy and basking in the cheers of enthusiastic Chinese audiences
 * Chinese thinkers called for liberation of women; footbinding, simplification of Chinese script in order to promote mass literacy, and promotion of Western-style individualism
 * program of May Fourth movement was adopted by the urban youth of China, and became clear that mere emulation of liberal democracies of the West could not provide effective solutions to China's problems
 * civil liberties and democratic elections were meaningless in a China that was ruled by warlords
 * gradualist solutions and parliamentary debates were a problem in a nation where the great mass peasantry was destitute, many malnourished and starving
 * became clear that more radical solutions needed
 * 1920s - rise of communist left within Chinese nationalist movement
 * Bolshevik victory and programs launched to rebuild Russia prompted Chinese intellectuals to give serious attention to works of Marx and other socialist thinkers and potential they offered to regeneration of China
 * most influential of thinkers who called for reworking of Marxist ideology to fit China's situation was **Li Dazhao**
 * from peasant origins, but excelled in school and became college teacher
 * headed Marxist study circle that developed after 1919 upheavals at University of Beijing
 * interpretation of Marxism = emphasis on its capacity for promoting renewal and ability to harness the energy and vitality of a nation's youth
 * saw peasants and vanguard of revolutionary change
 * justified his shift from orthodox Marxist emphasis on the working classes
 * argued that all of China had been exploited by the bourgeois, industrialized West
 * need to unite against this
 * Li's interpretation of Marxism found appeal amongst many students, including **Mao Zedong**, who joined his study circle
 * both infuriated by what they perceived as China's betrayal by imperialist powers
 * shared Li's hostility to merchants an commerce
 * longed for a return to political system like Confucian, in which those who governed were deeply committed to social reform and welfare
 * believed in authoritarian state, which they felt out to intervene constructively in all aspects of the peoples' lives
 * sumer 1921 - attempt to unify Marxist wing of nationalist struggle, many leaders from different parts of China met in a secret city of Shanghai
 * Communist party of China was born
 * The Seizure of Power by China's Guomindang:**
 * **MI: In the years when the communist movement in China was being put together by urban students and intellectuals, the __Guomindang/__ Nationalist party, struggled to survive in the south**
 * Sun Yat-sen went into temporary exile in 1914 in Japan, while warlords, such as Yuan Shikai consolidated their regional power bases
 * after returning to China in 1919, Sun and his followers attempted to unify diverse political organizations struggling for political influence in China by reorganizing the revolutionary movement and naming it the Nationalist Party of China
 * Nationalists began slow process of forging alliances with key social groups and building an army of their own, which they now viewed as the only way to rid China of the warlord menace
 * Sun strove to enunciate a nationalist ideology that gave something to everyone
 * stressed need to unify China under a strong central government, to bring imperialist intruders under control, and to introduce social reforms that would alleviate poverty of peasants and oppressive working conditions of laborers in China's cities
 * failed to implement most domestic programs proposed, esp. land reform
 * built their power on support provided by businesspeople and merchants in coastal cities such as Canton
 * Sun created alliance with communists that was officially proclaimed at the first Nationalist party conference in 1924
 * 1924 - **Whampoa Military Academy** founded with Soviet help and partially staffed by Russian instructors
 * gave Nationalists a critical military dimension to their political maneuvering
 * first head of the academy: **Chiang Kai-shek**
 * made his career in military and by virtue of connections with powerful figures in Shanghai underworld
 * received some military training in Japan and managed by the early 1920s to work his way into Sun Yat-sen's inner circle of advisors
 * not happy w/ Communist alliance, but willing to bide his time until he had the military strength to deal with communist and warlords, who remained major obstacle to the Nationalist seizure to power
 * political tensions distracted the Nationalist leaders from growing deterioration of economy
 * peasantry - 90% of the population, suffered from misery following a long period of gov. ineffectiveness and depredations by the landlords
 * famine and disease stalked the countryside, while irrigation systems deteriorated
 * Sun gave lip service to Nationalist party's need to deal with peasant problem
 * abysmal ignorance of rural conditions was revealed by statements in which he denied that China had exploitative landlords and refusal to believe serious issues b/w great mass of peasantry and landowners
 * Mao and the Peasant Option:**
 * **MI: Mao came under the influence of Li Dazhao's modified Marxist interpretation, and when Chiang Kai-shek took over much of China with Nationalist activities, Mao relocated a new communist center at Shangxi.**
 * Nationalists' successful drive for national power began only after Sun Yat-sen's death in 1925, which allowed Chiang Kai-shek and warlord allies to seize control of the party
 * after winning over/ eliminating the military chiefs of the Canton area, Chiang marched north with his newly created armies
 * first campaign = Nationalist seizure of Yangtze River valley and Shanghai in 1927
 * later captured Beijing and rest of Huanghe river basin
 * refusal of warlords to end their feuding meant that Chiang could defeat or buy them out.
 * late 1920s, Chiang became master of China in name and international standing
 * China turned against communists, attacking them in various places
 * massacre in Shanghai - 1927, with many workers gunned down or beheaded
 * Chiang gained support from western Europe and US, while lining up most police and landlord leaders at home
 * the offenseive propelled Mao to leadership
 * an attack on the communist rural stronghold in south central China, supported by German advisors, caused Mao to spearhead a **Long March** of 90,000 followers in 1934, across thousands of miles to the more remote northwest
 * in Shangxi, a new communist center took shape
 * Mao’s China and Beyond 823-830**
 * **MI: After their victory in the long civil war against the Guomindang in 1949, Chinese communists faced the task of governing a vast nation in ruins. In their pursuit of economic development and social reform, the communists sought to build on the base they had established in the "liberated" zones during their struggle for power.**
 * as Kai-shek was convinced that he was near victory, the Japanese invasion of the Chinese mainland interrupted his anticommunist crusade
 * did little to block steady advance of Japanese forces in early 1930s into Manchuria and other islands along China's coast
 * forced by his military commanders to concentrate on the Japanese threat, Chiang formed a military alliance with the communists
 * did all he could to undermine the alliance and continue anticommunist struggle by underhand means
 * even though Japanese invasion brought more suffering to the Chinese people, it was advantageous for the Communist party.
 * Japanese invaders captured much of Chinese coast, where the cities were the centers of business and mercantile backers of the Nationalists.
 * Chiang's conventional military forces were defeated by superior air, land, and sea forces of the Japanese.
 * attempts to meet Japanese in battle resulted in disaster, their inability to defend coastal provinces lowered their standing in eyes of Chinese people
 * guerilla warfare waged by the communist against the Japanese had a greater impact that Chiang's approach
 * Nationalist extermination campaigns suspended, and communists used their anti-Japanese campaigns to extend their control over large areas of north China
 * by end of WWII, Nationalists controlled mainly the cities in the north; had become islands surrounded by a sea of revolutionary peasants
 * communists' successes and determination to fend off Japanese won them support from most Chinese intellectuals and students who previously supported the Nationalists
 * 1945 - shift of power to Communists' favor
 * 4 -year civil war - communist soldiers fought for a cause, defeated abused soldiers of Nationalists
 * 1949 - Chiang and army fled to Taiwan, Mao established **People's Republic of China** in Beijing
 * Japanese invasion proved critical in communist drive to victory, along with communists' social and economic reforms
 * Mao made uplifting the peasants a central element to his drive for power
 * land reforms, access to education, and improved health care gave the peasantry a real stake in Mao's revolutionary movement and good reason to defend their soviets against the Nationalist and Japanese
 * Mao's soldiers saw need to protected peasantry and win their support
 * harsh penalties levied
 * as guerilla fighters, Mao's soldiers had greater chance to survive and advance in ranks than the forcibly conscripted Nationalist soldiers
 * Mao and his commanders, such as Lin Bao, who had been trained at Chaing's Whampoa Academy in the 1920s, proved far more capable, even in conventional warfare, than Nationalist generals
 * Japanese invasion: communists won mandate to govern China b/c they offered solutions to China's fundamental social and economic problems
 * The Communists Come to Power:**
 * **MI: The communists' long struggle for control had left the party with a strong political and military organization that was rooted in party cadres and People's Liberation Army.**
 * continuing importance of army was indicated by fact that most of China was administered by military officials for five years after the communists came to power
 * army remained subordinate to party
 * cadre advisors were attached to military contingents at all levels and the central committees of the party were dominated by nonmilitary personnel
 * w/ strong political framework in place, the communists moved quickly to assert China's traditional preeminenece in east and southeast Asia
 * potential secessionist movements forcibly repressed in Inner Mongolia and Tibet
 * early 1950s - Chinese intervened militarily in conflict b/w N and S Korea, which forced the US to settle for stalemate and division of peninsula
 * refusing to accept a two-nation outcome out of the struggle in China, the communist leadership threatened to invade the Nationalists' refuge on Taiwan
 * China also played important role in liberation struggle in Vietnam
 * late 1950s - close collaboration b/w S.U. and China that marked the early years of Mao's rule had broken down
 * border disputes focusing on territories that the Russians had seized during Qing decline, and Chinese refusal to be second to Russia were key causes to the split
 * meager economic assistance from the Soviets also fueled Mao's resentment
 * early 1960s - began brief war in India that resulted in border dispute
 * Planning for Economic Growth and Social Justice:**
 * **MI: On the home front, new leaders of china moved with equal vigor, though with less success. They planned to complete social revolution in rural areas that had, to some extent, been communist controlled during the war against the Japanese and Guodomindang.**
 * 1950 - 1952 - landlord class and large landholders were dispossessed and purged
 * village tribunals, overseen by party cadre members, gave tenants a laborers chance to get even for years of oppression
 * 3 million who were denounced as members of landlord class were executed
 * land taken from land-owning class was distributed to peasants
 * one central pledge of communists' fulfilled: China became a land of peasant small holders
 * communist planners saw rapid industrialization, not peasant farmers, as the key to successful development
 * 1953- introduction of first Stalinist style 5-year plan, where communists turned away from peasantry, to urban workers as the hope for new China
 * little foreign assistance from West/ Soviet bloc, the state resorted to stringent measures to draw resources from countryside to finance industrial growth
 * some advances made in industrialization, ie heavy industries; steel
 * shift in direction had consequences unacceptable to Mao and his radical supporters in the party
 * state planning and centralization stressed
 * party bureaucrats increased power and influences
 * urban based privileged class of technocrats developed
 * Mao held a long hostility to elitism, which he associated with Confucianism
 * had little use for Lenin's vision of revolution from above, led by disciplined cadre of professional political activists
 * distrusted intellectuals and faith resided in peasants rather than workers
 * Mao and supporters pushed the **Mass Line** approach, beginning with the formation of agricultural cooperatives in 1955
 * in the following year, cooperatives became farming collectives that soon accounted for over 90% of China's peasant population
 * enjoyed their holdings for over 3 years --> later took it away from them via collectivization
 * 1957 - Mao struck at intellectuals through miscalculation or clever ruse
 * encouraged professors and other intellectuals to speak out on course of development under communist rule
 * his request stirred up storm of protest and criticism of communist schemes
 * flushed out critics and struck with demotions, prison sentences, and banishment to harsh labor on the collectives
 * The Great Leap Backward:**
 * **MI: With political opposition w/in the party and army in check, Mao and his supporters launched the __Great Leap Forward__ in 1958, which were programs to revitalize the flagging revolution by restoring its mass, rural base.**
 * industrialization would be pushed through small scale projects integrated into the peasant communes
 * instead of the communes' surplus being siphoned off to build steel mills, industrial development would be aimed at producing tractors, cement for irrigation projects, and other manufactures needed by the peasantry
 * much publicity given to backyard furnaces to produce steel, that relied on labor instead of machine-intensive techniques
 * Mao preached benefits of backwardness and looked forward to withering away of bureaucracy
 * all aspects of the lives of the members were regulated by commune leaders and heads of local labor brigades
 * w/in months after the Great Leap and collectivization was launched, economic disaster ensued
 * peasant resistance to collectivization
 * abuses of commune leaders
 * dismal output to backyard factories combined with drought to turn the Great Leap into a giant step backward
 * famine spread across China
 * had to import large amounts of grain to feed its people and numbers of Chinese to feed continued to grow at alarming rate
 * Mao rejected Western and UN proposals for family planning and charged that socialist China could care for its people no matter how many there were
 * China's birth rates were lower than many emerging nations, but Chinese were adding to an already large population based
 * communist rise to power: 550 million people
 * in the face of environmental degradation and overcrowding that was produced by the leap, party ideologies came to view that something must be done to curb the birth rate
 * mid1960s- gov. launched nationwide family planning program designed to limit urban couples to 2 children
 * 1970s - revised to urban OR rural couples
 * 1980s- 1 child/ family
 * undue pressures for women to have abortions
 * China's national productivity soon fell by ~25%
 * pop. increase overwhelmed productivity of agricultural and industrial sectors
 * by 1960 - became evident that Great Leap must be ended and new course of development adopted
 * Mao lost position as chairman
 * **pragmatists**, such as Mao's old ally **Zhou Enlai**, with **Liu Shaoqui** and **Deng Xiaoping** came to power determined to restore state level direction and market incentives at local level
 * "Women Hold Up Half of the Heavens" :**
 * **MI: In Mao's struggles to renew the revolutionary fervor of the Chinese people, his wife, __Jiang Qing,__ played an important role. His reliance on her was consistent with the commitment to liberation of Chinese women he had acted upon throughout his political career.**
 * moved by story of young woman who committed suicide rather than submit to marriage arranged by family
 * from that moment on, women's issues and support were central to Mao's revolutionary strategy
 * women very active in Taiping Rebellion, Boxer Revolt, 1911 revolution that toppled the Manchus
 * took up women's rights
 * ended footbinding
 * did much to advance campaigns to end female seclusion, win legal rights for women and open education and career opportunities for them
 * Nationalists tried to reverse gains made by women in 1920s and 30s
 * into communist camp
 * tried to return women to home and hearth
 * spearheaded by Madam Chiang Kai-shek
 * Good Mother's Dat
 * Nationalist campaign to restore Chinese women to their traditional domestic roles depended on men contrasted sharply with the communists' extensive employment of women to advance the revolutionary cause
 * women served as teachers, nurses, spies, truck drivers, laborers on projects ranging from growing food to building machine gun-bunkers
 * victory of revolution brought women legal equality with men
 * right to choose marriage
 * since 1949- women also expected to work outside of home
 * opportunities for education and professional careers improved
 * late 1970s - traditional attitudes toward childrearing and home care prevailed
 * Mao's Last Campaign and the Fall of Gang of Four:**
 * **MI: Mao, though losing position as head of state, remained the most powerful and popular leader in Communist party, worked in 1960s to establish grassroots support for renewal of the revolutionary struggle. He opposed the efforts of the pragmatists and pushed economic growth over political orthodoxy.**
 * late 1965 - Mao was convinced that his support among students, peasants, and military was strong enough to launch the **Cultural Revolution,** his last campaign
 * launched all out assault on "capitalist-roaders" in the party
 * **Red Guard** student brigades publicly ridiculed and abused Mao's political rivals
 * Liu Shaoqui killed
 * Deng Xiaoping imprisoned
 * Zhou Enlain driven into seclusion
 * the students and rank and file of the People's Liberation Army were used to pull down the bureaucrats from their positions of power and privilege
 * soon became clear that the Cultural Revolution threatened to return China to chaos
 * rank-and-file threat to the leaders of the People's Liberation Army eventually proved decisive in prompting counter measures that force Mao to call the campaign off in late 1968
 * early 1970s, Mao's old rivals began to resurface
 * reconciliation b/t China and US that was negotiated suggested that, at least in foreign policy, the pragmatists were gaining the upper hand over ideologies
 * Deng's growing role in policy formation in 1973 onward represented a major setback for Jiang Qing, who led the **Gang of Four** that increasingly contested power on behalf of Mao
 * death of Zhou Enlain in 1976 - major blow to those whom the Gang of Four dubbed as "capitalist roaders" and betrayers of the revolution
 * Mao's death opened clash b/w rival factions
 * Gang of Four plotted to seize control of gov., while pragmatists acted in alliance with some more influential military leaders
 * Gang of Four arrested and their supporters' attempts to foment popular insurrections were foiled
 * since death of Mao, pramatists have been ascendant, and leaders, such as Deng Xiaoping have opened China to Western influence and capitalist development
 * under Deng, farming communes were discontinued and private peasant production for the market was encouraged
 * private enterprise also promoted in industrial sector, and experiments have been made with such capitalist institutions as stock exchange and foreign hotel claims

6. Read add take __brief__ notes on //Democratic Protest and Repression in China// 848-849 – Answer the questions at the end of the document (5 points) Questions:
 * June 4, 1989 - Chinese troops marched on political protesters, many of them students, camped in Tiananmen Square
 * protesters agitated for more open, democratic system against one-party communist rule
 * the military move cause hundreds of deaths and additional political imprisonments and exiles
 * crushed the protest movement
 * China continued with authoritarian politics amid rapid economic change
 * leading communist party official, Li Peng, establishes reasoning that, to the gov't, justified its later repression:
 * Comrades, in agreement with the decision made by the Standing Committee of the CPC Central Committee have organized a meeting, calling on all to mobilize and to curb turmoil in clear-cut manner, to restore normal order in society, and maintain stability and unity in order to ensure triumphant implementation of our reform and open policy and program of social modernization
 * situation at Tiananmen Sq. is grim --> anarchic state worsening
 * law and discipline undermined
 * before beginning of May, the situation began to cool down b/c of great efforts, but situation more turbulent since the beginning of May
 * public security deterioration, traffic jams, undermining of normal order
 * health = deteriorating and some lives in danger
 * many use hunger strikes as hostages to convince the party and gov't to yield political demands
 * party and gov't have taken every measure to treat and rescue the fasting students
 * situation in Beijing still developing and has already affected many other cities in the country
 * many places = increasing protestors and demonstrators
 * breaking into local party and gov't organs, along with beating, smashing, looting, burning, and other detrimental activities
 * all such incidents demonstrate that we will have nationwide major turmoil if no quick action is taken to stabilize the situation
 * subjects do not want turmoil, but instead, reform, develop democracy, and overcome corruption
 * important reason to take clear-cut stand in opposing the turmoil and exposing the political conspiracy of a handful of people to distinguish the masses from those who incited the turmoil
 * tolerance b/c of care for masses of youths and students = future of China
 * therefore, to protect them, we must end such turmoil
 * 1) Why does Li Peng object to the protest movement?
 * 2) The protest movement was organized with the intention of reforming government, protesting for a more open, democratic system against the communist-one party rule. Li Peng, a member of the Communist party, would not want such protests to succeed, and thus, delivers a speech to quell this movement, claiming the need to "curb turmoil in a clear-cut manner, to restore normal order in society, and maintain stability and unity."
 * 3) How does he try to persuade ordinary Chinese that the protest should cease?
 * 4) To persuade ordinary Chinese that the protest should stop, Li Peng notes all the detrimental effects that the protests are having in society, such as "traffic jams," "public safety" deterioration, and undermining of "normal order of production, work, study, and everyday life" of the people and city.
 * 5) What arguments resemble those many governments used against protest?
 * 6) One argument that Li Peng used was the negative effects that the protests were having towards the people and the city, being that they were harmful towards "public safety," and deterring it. He also goes on to mention the effect it is having on the health of the protesters, with their lives in "imminent danger." Li Peng also argues that if the protests were to continued, "it would likely lead to serious consequences which none of us want to see."
 * 7) What arguments reflect more distinctly Chinese traditions or communist values?
 * 8) The argument that the children are the future reflect Chinese traditions. Li Peng states that the tolerance of the movements was became of "our loving care for the masses of youths and students." The classlessness of communism is also referenced in the mentioning of support of "all members of the Communist Party."
 * 9) Why did the Chinese decide to repress political democracy?
 * 10) The Chinese, according to Li Peng, care for the future of the "youths and students," and believe that communism would be in their best interest. Political democracy and the protests for it "create turmoil" and "cook up stories to confuse and poison the masses," and therefore, it must be repressed.

7. Complete a leadership analysis on Mao Zedong (5 points)



> (33 years, 173 days) > > > > >
 * Name of Leader: Mao Zedong ||
 * Lifespan: December 26, 1893 – September 9, 1976 || Title: Chairman Mao, 1st Chairman of the Communist Party of China/ People's Republic of China ||
 * Country/region:China || Years in Power:
 * **1st Chairman of the Communist Party of China:** March 20, 1943 – September 9, 1976
 * **1st Chairman of the People's Republic of China:** September 27, 1954 – April 27, 1959
 * **1st Chairman of the Central Military Commission:** September 8, 1954 – September 9, 1976
 * **1st Chairperson of the CPPCC:** October 1, 1949 – December 25, 1954 ||
 * Political, Social, & Economic Conditions Prior to Leaders Gaining Power:
 * after fall of the Qing, the best-equipped for power were military commanders or warlords, who would dominate Chinese politics for the next 3 decades
 * Yuan Shikai
 * ** ometimes, supportive of the urban civilian politicians and sometimes wary of them, university students and their teachers and independent intellectuals provided another factor in post-Qing politics **
 * Following the toppling of the Qing, Sun Yat-sen claimed that he and the parties of the alliance were rightful claimants to the mandate to rule all of China
 * led the Revolutionary Alliance
 * ushered in Marxist and communist ideologies
 * May Fourth Movement was aimed at transforming China into a liberal democracy
 * enunciated in several speeches, pamphlets, novels, and newspaper articles
 * ridiculed Confucianism
 * promote mass literacy, and promotion of Western-style individualism
 * liberation of women
 * Communist party vs Nationalist feud
 * In the years when the communist movement in China was being put together by urban students and intellectuals, the Guomindang/ Nationalist party, struggled to survive in the south
 * spearheaded by Sun-Yat Sen until exile
 * saw the rise of Chiang Kai-shek in 1924
 * peasantry - 90% of the population, suffered from misery following a long period of gov. ineffectiveness and depredations by the landlords
 * famine and disease stalked the countryside, while irrigation systems deteriorated ||
 * Ideology, Motivation, Goals:
 * Li Dazhao interpretation of Marxism
 * interpretation of Marxism = emphasis on its capacity for promoting renewal and ability to harness the energy and vitality of a nation's youth
 * saw peasants and vanguard of revolutionary change
 * justified his shift from orthodox Marxist emphasis on the working classes
 * argued that all of China had been exploited by the bourgeois, industrialized West
 * need to unite against this
 * infuriated by what he perceived as China's betrayal by imperialist powers
 * shared Li's hostility to merchants an commerce
 * longed for a return to political system like Confucian, in which those who governed were deeply committed to social reform and welfare
 * believed in authoritarian state, which they felt out to intervene constructively in all aspects of the peoples' lives
 * summer 1921 - attempt to unify Marxist wing of nationalist struggle, many leaders from different parts of China met in a secret city of Shanghai
 * Communist party of China was born
 * renounced Western influences, but wanted superpower status like that of US
 * 1953- introduction of first Stalinist style 5-year plan, where communists turned away from peasantry, to urban workers as the hope for new China
 * <span style="margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">little foreign assistance from West/ Soviet bloc, the state resorted to stringent measures to draw resources from countryside to finance industrial growth
 * hostility to elitism ||
 * Significant Actions & events During Term of Power:
 * creation of Communist party
 * creation of P.R.O.C.
 * intervention in Korean War leading to division of the country via armistice line
 * Cultural Revolution
 * Red Guard student brigades publicly ridiculed and abused Mao's political rivals
 * <span style="margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Liu Shaoqui killed
 * <span style="margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Deng Xiaoping imprisoned
 * <span style="margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Zhou Enlain driven into seclusion
 * <span style="margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">the students and rank and file of the People's Liberation Army were used to pull down the bureaucrats from their positions of power and privilege
 * strove for women's rights --> freedom of marriage, more education rights
 * programs to revitalize the flagging revolution by restoring its mass, rural base
 * industrialization would be pushed through small scale projects integrated into the peasant communes
 * move away from bureaucracy
 * Mass Line approach ||
 * Short-Term effects:
 * Great Leap Forward = Great Leap Backward :(
 * famine widespread, importation of grains necessary

external source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mao_Zedong
 * millions died
 * 1960s = decollectivization || Long-Term Effects:
 * P.R.O.C./ communist regime
 * women's freedoms/ rights
 * modernization of industry
 * Armistice line b/w N. and S. Korea
 * opposition to communism/ democratic strides:
 * China(currently) = country-in-transition ||

8. Write a thesis statement for the following questions (10 points)** <span style="border-bottom: 1.5pt solid; border-left: medium none; border-right: medium none; border-top: medium none; display: block; padding-bottom: 1pt; padding-left: 0in; padding-right: 0in; padding-top: 0in;">
 * <span style="margin: 0in 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Analyze the changes and continuities in Chinese politics from 1914 to the present
 * In 1914, the end of Qing rule saw a jockeying of power b/w Nationalists and Communists. Despite this struggle, communism remains the defining factor in Chinese politics to this day, but saw some alterations in foreign policy.
 * Chinese politics was initially marked by a internal competition and a desire to expel foreign influences, but later, unders leader like Mao Zedong, outside ideas, such as marxism and socialism was adapted to Chinese specifications.
 * <span style="margin: 0in 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Analyze the changes in Chinese Society from 1914 to the present
 * China, under different regimes, experienced different changes in society. Under the Nationalists, there was improvement in international affairs. Under Communists, China experienced land reforms and improvements in women's rights. Following the Communists, however, China became open to foreign influences(West).

** Comparison **

Write an outline in the structure provided for the two essays below – You will receive a score based on the AP rubric. This part will be a quiz grade


 * 9. Essay 1: Compare 20th Century political developments in China and Russia.**


 * 10. Essay 2: Compare and Contrast 20th Social developments in China and Russia. Be sure to discuss the changing roles of women**

Thesis Statement:

Topic Sentence #1: (Must indicate what you will be comparing/contrasting) Evidence of Topic Sentence that relates to thesis Direct Comparison(s) that supports your topic sentence Analysis of Direct Comparison

Topic Sentence #2: Evidence of Topic Sentence that relates to thesis Direct Comparison(s) that supports your topic sentence Analysis of Direct Comparison

Topic Sentence #3: Evidence of Topic Sentence that relates to thesis Direct Comparison(s) that supports your topic sentence Analysis of Direct Comparison