Byzantine

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According to this google map, Constantinople is located on the peninsula. Being on a peninsula, it had access to both land and sea trade. The city, because of it's peninsula geography, could serve as a center of trade and cultural diffusion, contributing to a rapid development and a variety of different cultures and goods. Its location was in between Asia and Europe and could also serve as an entrepot for the two regions, having an economy based on trade. The location of Constantinople can also serve as a naval stronghold, and being located on two seas protected it from attack. If Byzantine fortified its shoreline borders, it could have been a fortress from naval attacks.



__OO1: ** Foundation of Byzantium: **__ · 10th century: o Vladimir- king of a Russian state § Entered Kiev, indecisive of the uniform religion for his people · Needed to decide why there was a need for new religion · Believed that his kingdoms growing trade and military activity would be complemented by a religion that had wider appea § Rejected Judaism · Not associated with strong state § Rejected Catholicism · Did not want interference from the pope § Rejected Islam · Disliked prohibition of alcohol § Chose Orthodox Christianity · Byzantine was Russia’s prosperous neighbor, leading trade partner · Eagar to marry Byzantine emperor’s sister o Captured Byzantine city until emperor allowed the marriage of his sister § Byzantine influences, such as art and literature began to shape Russian history § Vladimir’s decision: · Separated kingdom from Roman Catholic western Europe o Created long-standing cultural division b/t eastern and western Europe ** Byzantine Empire: ** · Maintained high levels of political, economic, and cultural activity during much of period b/t 500 – 1450 C.E. · Controlled key areas in Balkans, northern Middle East, and eastern Mediterranean · Leaders viewed themselves as Roman emperors o Their government was a direct continuation of eastern portion of late Roman empire · Empire lasted for over 1000 years o b/t Rome’s collapse in the west and the final subjugation by Turkish invaders · ** Constantinople: established in 4th century C.E. ** o Fostered 1 of 2 branches of Christianity: § Orthodox Christian churches · Became dominant throughout most of eastern Europe · Empire extended cultural and political influence into regions not previous established o Created new civilizations in the Balkans and western Russia · Constantine established many exquisite buildings on previous town of Byzantium o Was ruled by separate eastern emperors before the western half fell to Germanic invaders § Warded off invading Huns and other intruders § Had solid tax base in peasant agriculture of eastern Mediterranean o Responsible for : § Balkan peninsula § Northern Middle East § Mediterranean Coast § North Africa o Latin was court language o Greek was common tongue(became official language after Justinian in 6th century) o Benefitted from commerce along eastern Mediterranean o Expanded bureaucracy of Byzantine rulers § Recruited armies from Middle East · Not barbarian troops

** Justinian’s Achievements: ** · 533 C.E. – Justinian’s rise to power o New Byzantine emperor o Attempted to reconquer western territory to restore an empire like that of Rome, was in vain o Was autocratic, somber o According to **Procopius**, Justinian was never truthful and always guileful o Influenced by wife, **Theodora** § she stiffened his resolve in response to popular unrest § pushed plans for further expansion o rebuilt Constantinople § was previously ravaged by riots against high taxes and systematizing Roman legal code o Extended later Roman architecture § Added domes to earlier classical styles · Justinian’s builders created many new structures o ** Hagia Sophia: ** § huge church and one of wonders of Christian world § achievement in engineering and architecture · no one before was able to build the supports needed for a dome of its size       o Codification of Roman law § Summing up and reconciling many prior edicts and decisions § Unified law reduced confusion · United and organized empire § Spread Roman legal principles in various part of Europe o Appointed **Belisarius** as general: § New gains made in North Africa and Italy ﻿and Spain --> Ravenna § Justinian’s forces made temporary capital in **Ravenna** · Key artistic center o Had some of the world’s most beautiful Christian mosaic § Italian holdings did not last long, due to pressure from Germanic tribes § Justinian’s ambitions weakened own sphere · Persian forces attacked northern Middle East · New Slavic groups moved into Balkans pressed on another front § Justinian managed to create a new line of defense and pushed Persian forces back, but Middle East territory remained lost § Wars led to heavy taxation on government and ultimately led to his death.



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 * Summary: The obligations aspect of Justinian's code includes verbal agreements, bartering, wagers, and purchasing and selling goods based on agreements.** Obligatones are divided into two categories, civil and praetorian. Civil obligatones are those resolved by laws, referred to as civil law. Praetorian obligatories are those in which a praetor has established by his own authority, recognized as honorary. An obligatio by word of mouth is brought upon by a question and an answer, in which the stipulation is anything that shall be given to or done for us. It gives rise to two actions; the conditio, where the stipulation is certain, and the actio ex stipulatu, where it is uncertain. The words formerly used in verbal contracts include "Spondes? do you engage yourself? Spondeo, I do engage myself. Promittis? do you promise? and other words from the Latin language. It does not matter if tge stipulatio is Latin, Greek, or any language, as long as both parties meet an understanding. In ancient times, it was necessary to use the previous Latin terms, but once the Constitutio of Leo was enacted, only the apprehension and consent of each party is needed. Every stipulatio is made simply, or with the introduction of a particular time or condition. An example of a simple stipulation, would be "Do you engage to give five aurei?" In this case, money may be instantly demanded. When time is involved, a day is mentioned, in which the money must be paid. The money cannot be demanded before the day arrives, nor on that day, as the debtor has the entire day to accumulate that money, until the end of the day. If it is stipulated "Do you engage to give me ten aurei annually, as long as I live?" it is understood that the debt cannot be due for a long time, but if the heir demands payment, it will be repealed by the exceptio pacti(exception clause?!). A stipulo is based on certain conditions, such as, if it is stated that a certain even occurs and it does/ does not, the wager would be to give up a certain payment. If this condition is not met, it will be transferred to their heirs. It is also customary to include a place into the stipulatio. This assertion would imply a delay sufficient to enable the person who promises to deliver money at the specified location. Conditions, past or present affect the obligation. It can either void or not affect the obligatio at all. If something false is presented as fact, the stipulatio is void, if it is the truth, the obligatio is still valid. Actions may be the subject of a stipulo, such as something we state that we shall or shall not do. In these stipulations, it will be best to include a penalty, if the amount included in the stipulatio is uncertain; the plaintiff should be forced to show how great his interest is. Contract of sale is formed upon agreement of price, even if it has not been paid or an earnest given. What is given as an earnest only serves as proof that the contract has been made, and must be understood of sales made without writing. Where there is written, it is enacted that a sale is not to be considered completed without an instrument of sale, either written by contracting parties or a tabellio. A certain price must be agreed upon by both parties, for there cannot be a sale without a price, which must be fixed and certain. The price must also consist in a sum of money. It has been debated whether it can consist of anything else as in a slave, a piece of land, or toga. As soon as the sale is contracted, which is when both parties agree on a price, all risk attaching to the thing sold falls upon the purchaser, even if it has not been delivered to him. If anything happens to the product, eg. If the slave dies the house is burnt, or the land is flooded, the loss falls on the purchaser, and even though he does not benefit, he must still pay the price, and the seller does not suffer for anything that happens. If after the sale, the land is increased by the alluvion, it is the purchaser who receives the benefits. If a slave runs away or is stolen, without fault on part of the seller, we must inquire whether the seller undertook to keep him safely until he was delivered over. If he undertook this, he is liable for what happens, if not, he is not responsible. A sale may be conditional or unconditional. A sale is void when a person knowingly purchases a sacred or religious place, or a public place, eg. forum, basilica. He may bring an actio ex empto to recover what he paid, if he is deceived by the vendor that he was buying something private or profane.

-Justinian established law to justify right and wrong for equality -based on Roman law -saw law as combination of natural law and civil law -wrote about slaves being born as slaves --> social system -marriage - people could not marry family - monogamy -project height of civilization interefere in aspects of intimate relationships
 * Doc 1: **

-ownership of things -if you find it first, its yours -if it belongs to someone, you need to divide it or give it back -cannot own nature -not ownership of religious things -if you bury someone in your backyard, it is prohibited -if someone sells you something that belongs to someone else, you can keep it, until someone claims it
 * Doc 2: **

-if a beast is not yours, you can kill it

OO3: Read pg 203- 209 and answer following questions:


 * 1) Who were Cyril and Methodius? What did they accomplish?
 * 2) Cyril and Methodius were Orthodox missionaries sent by the Byzantine government in 864 to the territories of Slovak and Czech republics. Their venture failed, in that the Roman Catholic missionaries were more successful. They continued their efforts in the Balkans and in Southern Russia, where their ability to speak the Slavic language immensely assisted their efforts. Czech and Methodius devised a written script of Slavic, consisting of Greek letters, presently known as Cyrillic. The possibility of literature and some literacy developed in eastern Europe along with Christianity, well beyond the political borders of Byzantium
 * 3) How did events in the Middle East affect the demographics of the East Central borderlands?in western Europe. Poland gained the largest concentration of Jews.
 * 4) The demographics of Eastern Central borderlands changed as a result of the influx of Jews, who were migrating away from the Middle East and fleeing intolerance in western Europe. Eastern Europe's Jews gained strength in local commerce while maintaining their own religious and cultural traditions, because they were barred from agriculture and resented by the Christian majority. A strong emphasis on extensive education and literacy distinguished Jew culture from other regions.
 * 5) Outline the development of the Kievan Rus
 * Slavic peoples moved into the sweeping plains of Russia and eastern Europe from an Asian homeland during time of Roman empire.
 * incorporated with earlier inhabitants, eg. Bulgarians
 * adopted Slavic language and customs
 * used iron
 * extended agriculture into Ukraine and western Russia
 * maintained animist religion with gods for sun, thunder, wind, and fire
 * 6th & 7th centuries:
 * traders from Scandinavia began to work through Slavic lands
 * moved along great rivers of western Russia
 * Norse traders were able to reach Byzantium using this route
 * facilitated trade b/t Scandinavia and Constantinople
 * luxury products from Byzantium and the Arab world traveled north in return for furs/ crude products
 * Scandinavian traders
 * militarily superior Slavs
 * gradually set up governments along their trade route
 * **Kiev**
 * monarchy emerged:
 * **Rurik**, native of Denmark:
 * first prince of Kievan Rus' in 855 C.E.
 * loosely organized through alliances with regional, landed aristocrats, flourished until the 12th century
 * contacts b/t Kievan Rus' and Byzantium extended steadily
 * Kiev became prosperous trading center
 * from Kiev, many Russians visited Constantinople
 * **Vladimir I** - descedent of Rurik (980-1015)
 * converted to Christianity
 * organized mass baptisms
 * forced conversions by military pressure
 * early church leaders were imported from Byzantium
 * helped train a literate Russian priesthood
 * king controlled major appointments
 * separate **Russian Orthodox Church** developed
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">as Kievan Rus' became Christian, it was the largest single state in Europe
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">decentralized
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Rurik's descendants managed to avoid damaging battles over succession to the throne
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">issued a formal law code that reduced severity of traditional punishments
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">replaced community vendettas with staterun courts
 * **<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Yaroslav: **
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">last of great Kievan princes
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">issued legal codification while building many churches and arranging translations of religious literature from Greek to Slavic
 * 1) What important decision was made by Vladimir I?
 * 2) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Vladimir I took the step of converting to Christianity, not only in his own name, but on behalf of all his people He organized mass baptisms for his subjects, forcing conversions by military pressure. Early church leaders were imported from Byzantium and helped train Russian priesthood. A separate Russian Orthodox church soon developed.
 * 3) What were some of the major similarities and differences between Byzantium and the Kievan Rus?
 * 4) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Similarities:
 * 5) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">issued a formal law code that reduced severity of traditional punishments
 * 6) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">replaced community vendettas with staterun courts
 * 7) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Orthodox Christianity:
 * 8) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">devotion to power of God and many Eastern saints
 * 9) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">churches were filled with icons and incense
 * 10) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">polygamy transitioned to Christian practice of monogamy
 * 11) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Disasters were viewed as wrath of God
 * 12) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Russian art focused on religion --> icon painting/ illuminated religious manuscripts
 * 13) Russian church tried to suppress music, theatre
 * 14) Orthodox churches built in the form of a cross mounted by a dome
 * 15) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Differences:
 * 16) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Kievan Rus' --> no bureaucracy/ elaborate educational system
 * 17) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">utilized wood in building materials, rather than stone
 * 18) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Kievan Ru's was largely unorganized
 * 19) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Yaroslav the Wise:
 * 20) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">used marriage to create ties
 * 1) <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">used marriage to create ties


 * 1) What factors led to the decline of the Kievan Rus?
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Kievan principality began to fade by 12th century:
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">rival princes established reional governments
 * royal family often squabbled over succession to the throne
 * Invaders from Asia whittled at Russian territory:
 * diminished Russian trade and wealth
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">1237-1238
 * 1240-1241
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">two invasions by Mongols moved through Russia and into other parts of Europe
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">intended to add the whole of Europe to growing empire
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">easily captured major Russian cities
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">did not penetrate much farther west
 * **Tatars**
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">much of Russia remained under their control for over 2 centuries
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Russian literature languished under Tatars
 * trade lapsed in western Russia
 * north-south commerce of Kievan period never returned
 * loose Tartar supervisiondid not destroy Russian Christianity or a native Russian aristocratic class
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">as long as a tribute was paid, Tartars left day-to-day Russian affairs alone
 * when Tartar control was forced out in second half of 15th century
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Russian culture could reemerge
 * served as partial basis for further development of Russian society
 * 1453 - Constantinople fell to Turks
 * logical to claim that the mantle of east European leadership had fallen on Russia
 * Monk wrote to Russian king in 1511:
 * heresy had destroyed the first Roman empire and that the Turks had cut down the second, Byzantium, a "third, new Rome" under the king's "mighty rule," "Sends out the Orthodox Chrisitan faith to the ends of the earth and shines more brightly than the sun."
 * The third stands, but there will not be a fourth
 * European civilization fell on hard times
 * with both Byzantine and Russia under seige
 * <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;">Western Europe :
 * free from outside control
 * maintained politics, economy, and culture
 * Eastern Europe:
 * differed from Western Europe in terms of power, economic and cultural sophistication

__Read and summarize the main points of "Eastern and Western Europe: The Problem of Boundaries" p.208__

 * The borders of two related civilizations that developed in Europe is difficult to determine. Religion could be used to determine boundaries, as well as politics, trade, and expansion.** Many states were situated on the borders of two civilizations and shared characteristics each. If western and Eastern Europe were catagorized by mainstream culture, it is reasonable to divide them according to Orthodox and Catholic catagories, and the use of Cyrillic and Greek and Latin alphabets. Based on this idea, Poland, Czech areas, Baltic states, most of Hungary are western. South Slavs are mainly orthodox along with Russia and Ukraine, which are decidedly Orthodox. Poland, Hungary, and Lithuania formed large regional kingdoms at various times during and after the postclassical period. They were loosely organized and were limited by large aristocracies in Poland and Hungary. When Poland and Hungary distinictions revealed them to be different economic structures, trade patterns united the two regions. Borders can be altered by expansion, Russia's spread eventually incorporated regions, like Poland into its territory.Mongol invasions also captured parts of Europe, including Poland and Hungary, even though the armies did not remain there for long. For two centuries at the end of the postclassical period, divisions within eastern European countries have gained full independence from Russia after their searing divisions.

trade - hungary and poland were separated and showed different economies

With it's culture, location, and laws, the Byzantine Empire was an influential force in the post-classical era. After it's succession of Rome, Byzantine served as a major center of trade, with its capital, Constantinople serving as an entrepot between many nations. Byzantine's trade patterns influenced the creation of many cities, such as the Kievan Rus', which adapted many of it's cultures. Under Byzantine's emperors, esp.Justinian, Hellenistic and Roman ideas were adopted and Roman was established as the official language. Justinian even created a law code that guided daily life, the Justinian Code. He also attempted to reconquer some of the lost territory of the Roman empire. It was also at this time that the spread of Chrisitanity contributed to the separation of Europe, into two sects, the Holy Roman Empire and the Eastern Orthodox. As the west became to decline, the East was proliferating.