The+Last+Great+Nomadic+Challenges+From+Chinggis+Khan+to+Timur

Mongol Empire ==

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001: ESPIRIT on Mongols
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 * **E** || * The Mongols originallyoriginally depended on herding as the major driving force behind their economy, until conquered lands helped expand free, long distance trade and would act as a similar manner as the modern day internet, creating a sense of global community.
 * **Mongols were a nomadic people who depended on herding, trade, and tributes from conquered regions.**
 * nomadic society and culture
 * dependence on herds of goats and sheep
 * driven from one pasture area to another depending on season
 * staple foods were :
 * meat and milk products provided by the herd
 * grain and vegetables gained through trade w/ sedentary farmers
 * traded hides and dairy products for jewelry, weapons, and cloth made in urban centers
 * profited from tributes from conquered regions
 * Russia --> trade links
 * Moscow was tribute collector ||
 * **S** || * **Social life revolved around separated kin-related clans, however, over time, they united under the rule of Chinggis Khan and became a warrior culture.**
 * **Q: What were the similarities b/t development of the Arabs and the development of Mongols.**
 * tribes
 * kin-related clans
 * members camped and herded together on a regular basis
 * clans and tribes combined into great confederations when:
 * threatened by external enemies
 * preparing for raids on other nomads
 * invasions on sedentary areas
 * duration of confederations depended on skills of leaders
 * after issue was resolved, clands and tribes drifted back into own pasturelands and campsites
 * on all organizational levels:
 * free men of the group elected leaders
 * women exercised influence w/in the family
 * also had right to be heard in tribal councils
 * however, men dominated leadership positions
 * Vital leadership skills:
 * courage in battle
 * bravery in hunt
 * ability to forge alliances and attract dependants
 * strong leader could easily build large following of chiefs from other clans and tribal groups
 * if leader grew old and feeble or suffered severe reverses
 * subordinates would abandon him
 * expected to happen
 * subordinates felt no remorse
 * survival and that of their dependents attached to strong tribal leader
 * if you didn't surrender, Mongols would through you from city walls and
 * sell you into slavery or
 * killed ||
 * **P** || Mongolians interconnected military aspects with the developement of the society as a whole by focusing on gaining control of different cultures.
 * **12th century:**
 * when preparing for raids and outside forces, different tribes would combine alliances
 * would separate back into individual tribes
 * leadership possitions were assumed by men
 * **Kabul Khan**
 * led Mongol alliance that won glory by defeating an army sent against them by the Qin kingdom of north China
 * after victory, fell ill and died
 * successors could neither defeat their nomadic enemies nor sustain Mongol alliance
 * fell on hard times
 * **Temujin's father**
 * able leader
 * built decent following and negotiated promise of marriage b/t eldest son and daughter of a strong Mongol chief
 * was poisoned by rival nomadic group
 * **Temujin/ Chinggis Khan**
 * thrusted upon power following death of his father
 * most chiefs refused to follow a mere boy with few credentials
 * captured by rival clan in **1182**
 * escaped and reunited with mother and brothers
 * allied himself with more powerful Mongol chieftain
 * avenged insults of clan that enslaved him and raided his camp for horses and women
 * **1206**- at **kuriltai**, meeting of all Mongol chieftains
 * Temujin was renamed **Chinggis Khan** and elected **khagan**, supreme ruler of Mongol tribes
 * those who elevated Chinggis to leader ship were natural warriors
 * trained from youth to ride, hunt, and fight
 * were physically tough, mobile, and accustomed to killing and death
 * wielded variety of weapons
 * lances, hatchets, iron maces, short bows
 * Chinggis Khan and subordinate commanders brought organization, discipline, and unity of command
 * old quarrels and vendettas b/t clans were overridden by loyalty to the khagan
 * energies devoted to infighting were now devoted to:
 * conquest and forcible exaction of tribute
 * saw the destiny for himself and sons to be warriors born to conquer the world.
 * Mongol forces were divided into armies made of basic fighting units called **tumens**
 * consisted of 10,000 warriors
 * further divided into units of 1000, 100, and 10 warriors
 * Commanders at each level were responsible for training, arming, and discipling cavalrymen under their charge
 * Tumens were also divided by:
 * heavy cavalry:
 * lances and wore some metal armor
 * light cavalry:
 * relied on bow and arrow and leather helmets and body covering
 * separate messenger force
 * switched from horse to horse, were heavily bandaged
 * carried messages b/t khagan and subordinates
 * 1226:
 * completing the plunder of Xi Xia
 * Chinggis fell ill after sustaining injury in battle
 * died in August 1227
 * Mongol empire was divided amongst Chinggis' three sons and:
 * **Batu:**
 * grandson and heir of the khagan's deceason son Jochi
 * towns and cultivated areas such as those in north China and parts of Persia were considered common property of Mongol ruling family
 * **Golden Horde:**
 * named after their golden tents of the earlier western sector of Mongol empire
 * invaded Russia in 1236
 * force of 120,000 cavalry men
 * from 1237-1238 and 1240
 * winter invasions gave them access to their enemies
 * cities such as Ryazan, Moscow, and Vladimir resisted and were destroyed
 * Novgorod and Kiev were spared
 * 1240:
 * Kiev was destroyed
 * cathedral Saint Sophia was spared
 * Novgorod was spared
 * led to half-century of Mongol dominance in Russia
 * Russian princes paid tribute to Mongol overlords
 * Moscow served as tribute collector
 * gained prominence in Russia as in annexed surrounding regions
 * as Moscow's influence increased, Mongol's declined in Russia
 * dubbed Tatars/ Tartars by Russians
 * kuriltai convened at Karakorum
 * **Ogedei**, Chinggis' preference was chosen (3rd son)
 * elected grand khan
 * crafty diplomat and manipulator
 * directed Mongol energies into further campaigns and conquests
 * Russia,, eastern Europe, Islamic heartlands, and China
 * **Prester John:**
 * Chinggis Khan
 * Christians were pleased with the rise of new military power in central Asia
 * **Hulegu:**
 * grandson of Chinggis
 * ruler of Ilkhan portions of the Mongol empire
 * assaults on Muslim heartlands:
 * capture and destruction of Baghdad in 1258
 * murder of Abbasid caliph
 * 800,000 killed in Mongol retribution for the cities resistance
 * **Berke:**
 * cousin of Hulegu and threatened him
 * new khan of the Golden Horde to the north, who converted to Islam ||
 * **I** || ** The Mongol interactions were brought through retribution for assults against the kingdom, and with that they attempted to take over most of Eurasia, and they did, bringing peace,religious tolerance, and expanding trade. **
 * Chinggis Khan dispatched caravan in attempts to establish commercial and political relations with Khwarazm
 * slaughtered by Muhammad Shah
 * seeking retribution, Mongol cavalry, under Chinggis Khan, conquered Khwarazm
 * In Khwarazm
 * artisans were spared
 * some sent to Mongol capital at Karakorum
 * others carried their skills throughout empire
 * manufacturing and commerce thrived under Mongol Empire
 * Mongol dominance
 * saw revitalization of commerce and urban life in places like Bukara and Samarkand along Silk Road
 * those who saw no resistance were spared
 * permitted to continue spiritual and physical needs
 * religous tolerance
 * allowed diverse faiths and ethnic groups
 * domains of khans comprised realm in which once hostile groups lived together in peace
 * Mongol conquests
 * spread throughout Eurasia
 * historians considered them to be savage, backward and barbaric peoples who plundered city after city
 * "hordes"
 * cross-cultural exchange and human advance
 * 1207:
 * Tangut kingdom in Xi Xia
 * ruler was forced to declare himself a vassal of the khagan and pay a hefty tribute
 * Jin empire:
 * Manchu-related Jurchens est. a century earlier in north China
 * often spared lives of famous scholars
 * employed them as advisors and artisans
 * towns that fought back were sacked as soon as they were taken
 * townspeople = slaughtered or sold into slavery
 * homes, palaces, mosques, temples = reduced to rubble
 * towns that surrendered were spared
 * had to pay tribute to Mongol leaders
 * 1219:
 * annex of Kara Khitai
 * brought Turkic horsemen into his army
 * Mongol Conquests brought peaces to much of Asia
 * handicraft production and scholarship and artistic creativity
 * secure trade route ||
 * **R** || ** Though Buddahism had influence on the the Mongol empire there was still freedom of religion that impacted the Mongol Empire as well. **
 * Chinggis Khan followed //shamanistic// beliefs of his ancestors
 * however, all religions were tolerated in his empire
 * Mongols were religiously tolerant
 * allowed practice of religion to those who surrendered and paid tribute to the Mongol khagan ||
 * **I** || ** There was less significance placed on intell ** ** e ** ** ctual aspects of the Mongol empire due to the fact that there was more focus on miltary values **
 * Mongol cavalry
 * moved rapidly and easily able to demoralize enemy forces
 * attacked in pincer formation
 * Mongols were astute and tolerant rulers
 * open to new ideas and committed to buuilding a new world where the diverse peoples of his empire could live together in peace
 * Once conquered people were subdues, Chinggis took interest in their arts and learning
 * est. new capital at **Karakorum** on the steppes and summoned the wise and clever from all parts of the empire
 * here, he:
 * consulted Confucian scholars on how to rule China
 * Muslim engineers about how to build siege weapons and improve trade with lands farther west
 * Daoist holymen, who he hoped could give him an elixer that would make him immortal
 * administrative framework that drew on the advice and talents of both Muslim and Chinese bureaucrats
 * script devised for Mongolian language
 * facilitate recordkeeping and standardization of laws
 * Mongol Marauders
 * lightning raids ||
 * **T** || * dressed in sheepskins
 * made boots from tanned sheep hides
 * lived in round felt tents made of wool sheared from animals
 * capturing of Chinese artisans and military commanders:
 * battering rams
 * catapults that hurled rocks and explosive balls
 * bamboo rockets ||
 * battering rams
 * catapults that hurled rocks and explosive balls
 * bamboo rockets ||

== ==002: Class Piratepad on ESPIRIT Main Ideas&Questions

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003 :Yuan Dynasty Notes:
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 * **The Mongol Interlude in Chinese History**
 * MI: Mongol dominance in the Yuan era met with Chinese attempts to assimilate the nomadic peoples. Despite this, the Mongols continued to retain a distinct culture and social separateness.
 * **Kubilai Khan**, a grandson of Chinggis Khan, assumed title of great khan after capturing China. In 1271, at the heeding of Yuan advisors, Kubilai changed the name of his Mongol regime to a Chinese language dynastic title.
 * Kubilai passed many laws to preserve distinctions b/t Mongol and Chinese as he annexed more areas:
 * forbade Chinese scholars to learn Mongol script used for records
 * built capital Tatu in Beijing
 * introduced Chinese rituals into own court
 * Chinese calendar and offered sacrifices to ancestors
 * New social structure was established in Yuan dynasty
 * Mongols at top, central Asian nomadic and Muslim allies below them
 * these groups occupied highest positions in bureaucracy
 * beneath them were north chinese
 * ethic chinese and minority peoples of the south
 * these people could never hold powers at top, only serve as advisors to the Mongol and other nomadic officials
 * **Gender Roles and the Convergence of Mongol and Chinese culture**
 * MI: While the Chinese women were more restricted, Mongol women exercised more freedoms.
 * Mongol women refused to adopt the practice of footbinding which limited many opportunities of women.
 * retained rights to property and control within the household as well as freedom to move about the country side.
 * had more independence:
 * Mongol women riding to the hunt, both with husbands and at the head of their own hunting parties
 * **Chabi**, Kubilai Khan's wife is an example of persisting influence of Mongol women
 * Kubilai's most important confidants on political and diplomatic matters
 * promoted Buddhist interests in the highest circles of government
 * **Mongol Tolerance and Foreign Cultural Influence:**
 * MI: Kubilai and Chabi's curosity led to an influx of intellectual innovations and religious tolerance into Yuan court.
 * Scholars, artists, srtisans, and office-seekers from many lands entered China.
 * Muslims were second highest in social groupings, just beneath the Mongols.
 * Persians and Turks were admitted to the inner circle of Kublai's administrators and advisors
 * Muslims designed and supervised building of his Chinese- style imperial city and proposed new systems for more efficient tax collectiion
 * instruments for celestial observation
 * Chinese caldenar improvements
 * Religious toleration and interest in religions --> welcomed travelers and emissaries from foreign lands into his court
 * Buddhists, Nestorian Christians, Daoists, Latin Christians
 * Polo family from Venice in northern Italy
 * Marco Polo's account of China led to European interests in the region.
 * **Social Policies and Scholar Gentry Resistance:**
 * MI: Mongol preservations of separateness led to a decline in the scholar gentry, incline in arts, and continued urban expansion
 * Most Chinese viewed Kubilai and the Mongols as uncouth barbarians. His refusal to reinstate the examinations prevented Confucian scholars fromdominating politics. The favoritism he showed Mongols and other foreign officials further alienated the scholar-gentry.
 * Kubilai increased position of artisan classes
 * had great regard for artisans because of their useful skills and had often spared them, while killing their fellow city dwellers.
 * Merchants prospered and commerce boomed b/c Mongol efforts to improve transportation and expand supply of paper money.
 * substantial navy
 * Mongol war fleets used to put down pirates that jeopardized sea trade and commerce.
 * Mongols were addicted to diversions in urban life.
 * poetry and essay writing languished
 * musical dramas flourished
 * //**The Romance of the West Chamber**// --> most famous dramatic work of the Yuan dynasty
 * initially pursued policies toward peasants
 * prevented Mongol cavalrymen from turning croplands into pastures and restored granary system for famine relief
 * sought to reduce peasant tax and forced-labor burdens
 * redirecting peasant payments from local nonofficial tax farmers directly to government officials
 * **The Fall of the House of Yuan:**
 * MI:After nine decades, Kubilai Khan's reign showed signs of weakening.
 * Song loyalists raised revolts in the south and hostility toward foreign overlords were expressed more openly.
 * Mongol aura of invincibility was maligned by losses at the hands of military lords of Japan and failed expeditions, beginning in 1274 and 1280. Mongol rule bean to soften after the deaths of Kubilai's son and wife. His successors lacked his capacity for leadership and cared little for the tedium of day-to-day adminstrative tasks.
 * Many Muslim and Chinese functionaries who were trusted with imperial power became overwhelmed with graft and corruption.
 * peasants became burdened with rising taxes and demands for forced labor
 * 1350's - dynastic decline
 * piracy and banditry ran rampant
 * gov't too weak to curb them
 * famine led to local uprisings
 * Secret religious sects:
 * **While Lotus Society**
 * dedicated to overthrowing dynasty
 * leaders claimed they had magical powers to heal followers and confound their enemies helped encourage further peasant resistance against the Mongols.
 * **Afterschock: The Brief Ride of Timur:**
 * Following the receding of Mongol dominance from China, comes another group of nomads from central Asia that, once again restores hysteria in China.
 * **Timur-i Lang**
 * had complex personality
 * highly cultured person with interest in fine arts, lush gardens, and splended architecture and have insightful discussions with philosophers
 * ruthless conquerer indifferent to human suffering and capable of commanding troops to commit atrocities
 * 1360's --> his armies moved out from his base at Samarkand to conquests in Persia, Fertile Cresent, India, and Southern Russia.
 * did not measure up to Mingols in size, but overwhelmed them in ferocity of campaigns
 * barbaric destruction:
 * pyramids of skulls
 * tens of thousands of peoople were slaughtered after they took the city of Aleppo from Asia Minor
 * rule did NOT increase trade and cross-cultural exchanges nor internal peace
 * reign was brief but violent
 * 1405---> after Timur's death, empire was pulled apart by warring commanders and old enemies
 * his death marked the end of great challenge of steppe nomads to civilizations of Eurasia
 * 1405---> after Timur's death, empire was pulled apart by warring commanders and old enemies
 * his death marked the end of great challenge of steppe nomads to civilizations of Eurasia