Greece

001: Document: Thucydides on Athens (5th c. BCE)
Terry: from wikipedia; Thucydides caught the plague. exiled from Athens because of medical reasons. could be biased towards Sparta, because Athens exiled him. ||
 * Author – Who created this? What do we know about the author? What might influence their opinions? || The author is Thucydides, who was a Greek historian who served as a general in the Pelopponesian War. He fought on the Greek side in the war between the Greeks and the Spartans. He wrote a first-hand account of the first years of the war called the History of the Peloponnesian War. As the Greek general, his experiences might cause this document to have bias for Athens, because he was an Athenian general, and boast of the cities feats and successes(in and out of war).
 * **Place**


 * – Where and when was it created - || Greece, around 431- 430 B.C.E., after the Pelopponesian War, to commemorate soldiers lost in the war, as well as to praise the city of Athens. ||
 * Prior Knowledge

Many casualities in Pelopponesian War, Athens lost to Sparta, hence the need for the speech by Thucydides. Arts, named after Athena, known for politics, and learning in general. Athens was also known to be the less structutured of the city-states, giving more freedom to its people. ||
 * What do we know about where this was created? What have we learned about this topic? Society that may be relevant?** || The political structure of Greece was a city-state, and for the most part, democratic. They lived in city-states. Each city-state was a separate political unit. The Greeks pioneered the Olympics, where men would compete in highly demanding sports, such as discus, or javelin. Greeks also expressed high interests in arts, politics, and architecture, building the Parthenon and Acropolis.
 * Audience

people who came for the funeral for the soldiers. "lamination for the soldiers..." would receive this well, because it is patriotic. ||
 * Who is the intended audience? How might they receive this? – quotes to support your claims?** || Athenians, soldiers of Pelopponeisan War, and families of those who served in the war. Thucydides is appealing to Athenians and praising those who fell in the war. The people of Athens, especially the families of the victims of war, would interpret this document as a way to boost confidence. "So died these men as became Athenians. You, their survivors, must be determined to have as unfaltering a resolution in the field, though you may pray that it may have a happier outcome. . . . " He is saying that the soldiers died to provide the "happier outcome" for the people of Athens. Athenians could take pride in the fact that those who fell, did so to protect the city, and died for a noble cause.
 * Reason for Creation


 * What is the purpose of this document? Read between the lines, support claims with a quote** || Thucydides created this document to express his patriotism for Athens, as well as to boost morale of the citizens of Athens. He wanted to generate a sense of accomplishment for the Athenians, in that the Athenian soldiers died for a noble cause, to preserve the rights of their people, and to ensure their safety. He also tries to comfort the Athenian people, telling them that the soldiers' deaths are not in vain. "Comfort, therefore, not condolence, is what I have to offer to the parents of the dead who may be here." "In short, I say that as a city we are the school of **Hellas..."** ||
 * The Main Idea


 * Support with quotes** || The author is comparing Athens to Sparta, and boasting about the superiority of Athens over Sparta. Athens rules with a democracy, and is the ideal society. "Our constitution does not copy the laws of neighboring states; we are rather a model for others than imitators ourselves." Here, Thucydides is saying that Athens is a model society, and serves as an example for other cities, possibly including Sparta. It is also the most equitable city-state, not limiting the rights of anyone, "we differ from our antagonists. We throw open our city to the world, and never pass laws to exclude foreigners ." ||
 * Significance


 * How does this relate to the big picture? What can it tell us as historians? Relate to ESPIRIT if possible** || This document relates to the social aspect of the ESPIRIT chart. Thucydides claims that the city "differs from their antagonists. We throw open our city to the world, and never pass laws to exclude foreigners." This discusses the idea of equality, where foreigners, unlike in India, and other civilizations, are separated by a caste system, Greece is a place that welcomes its foreigners, with equality. "Nor again does poverty bar the way," also relates to the social aspect, because he is saying that in Greece, fortune does not limit what one can do. Anyone, of any economic class, can accomplish anything. ||

002: Document: Plutarch on Life in Sparta (1st c. BCE)


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 * Author – Who created this? What do we know about the author? What might influence their opinions? || Plutarch was born near Corinth around 45 C.E., and an optimistic Greek historian. He is noted for his uplifting accounts and philosophical observations. His most notable piece of work is Parallel Lives. Plutarch's work includes biographical sketches of famous Greeks and Romans, such as Alexander the Great, Caesar, Cicero, etc.
 * Place

/ Sparta - around 1 B.C.E. - Tamisha ||
 * – Where and when was it created - || created in Greece
 * Prior Knowledge

What do we know about where this was created? What have we learned about this topic? Society that may be relevant? || Like Greece, Sparta was also a city-state. Sparta had a more violent outlook on life than Greece, training many men and women to be fit prepared for battle. Women and men were almost on par, unlike Greece, and women played the important role of bearing children. Spartans believed that strong women bore strong children, and mandated that they remain in peak shape. believed to be founded by Aries, known to be the more war-like of the Greek city states. -Terry -society was heavily influenced by military power and physical ability. Terry -bad blood between Athens, during Pelopponesian War. - Tamisha ||
 * Audience

Who is the intended audience? How might they receive this? – quotes to support your claims? || The audience of this document might be Spartans, and people who want to gain insight on the lives of Spartans, and the vigorous training under Lycurgus. For Spartans, they might receive this document as a praise for Lycurgus, and his improvements toward the Spartan empire. For people who want to learn about Lycurgus, they might become surprised at the fact that even though both are Sparta and Athens are Greek city-states, they differ tremendously, in that Sparta is more demanding and prohibits its people from enjoying their lives. "Among the many innovations which Lycurgus made, the first and most important was his institution of a senate, or Council of Elders, which, as Plato says, by being blended with the "feverish" government of the kings, and by having an equal vote with them in matters of the highest importance, brought safety and due moderation into counsels of state." people of Sparta, receive it well, because it praises Spartan lifestyle and Lycurgus - Terry ||
 * Reason for Creation

What is the purpose of this document? Read between the lines, support claims with a quote || Plutarch's Life in Sparta gives insight into the livestyles of Spartans, and provides knowledge of Lycurgus' impact on Spartan society. He has reformed the Spartan way of life, and prevented its inhabitants from living life according to themselves, but to the government. Boys, by the age of seven, are sent to "companies," where they would train and prepare for war. They are taught to operate in unison, and individuality is disregarded. ". . . as soon as [the boys] were seven years old, Lycurgus ordered them all to be taken by the state and enrolled in companies, where they were put under the same discipline and nurture, and so became accustomed to share one another's sports and studies.... " further explain and expand upon what Lycurgus did for Sparta. ||
 * The Main Idea

Support with quotes || The main idea is that Sparta is a more productive city-state than Athens, with a more devoted and impressive army of men.Lycurgus does not want any other city-states to imitate his customs and ways, fearing that they would use them for "evil." "he actually drove away from the city the multitudes which streamed in there for no useful purpose, not because he feared they might become imitators of his form of government and learn useful lessons in virtue, as Thucydides says, but rather that they might not become in any wise teachers of evil. " Lycurgus is confident in the success and ability of his government, that he believes it would have negative effects, if his methods were in the wrong hands. ||
 * Significance

How does this relate to the big picture? What can it tell us as historians? Relate to ESPIRIT if possible || This document relates to the political and social aspect of the ESPIRIT chart, in that Plutarch focuses on the government molded by Lycurgus. He noted that the government was sort-of like a tyranny, and the people of Sparta were prohibited from leading lives of their own, only lives of the government; serving the government. He did not allow them to live abroad at their pleasure and wander into strange lands, but Spartans had to remain in their homeland and train for battle. Children, specifically boys, by the age of seven, were brought to companies, where they were trained for battle. Men and women shared equal amounts of power, and women were required to remain fit. ||

003 Comparison between Athens and Sparta


Sources:
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 * || ===Athens=== || ===Sparta=== ||
 * ===Economic=== || * by 5th century B.C.E., became foremost trading power of Mediterranean Sea || * agricultural society.
 * imports of metal ||
 * ===Political=== ||= * Democracy
 * elected by an upper class, male population.
 * Broken down into divisions, where 50 people were randomly chosen from each unit to form a council of 500. || * Oligarchy, where 5 men called ephors and a council of 28 elders presided over Sparta
 * elected by Spartan men over age 30. ||
 * ===Social=== || * Government was less restrictive. Athens allowed people to travel, enjoy the arts, literature, politics.
 * embraced creativity/ arts, believing that education would be key. Boys were not forced to join army or navy.
 * male members of society had good education, were free to pursue arts and sciences.
 * women had no rights and were required to remain in the home[[image:http://pages.uoregon.edu/klio/im/gr/croesus_pyre.jpg width="174" height="246" caption="Athenian Vase ; http://pages.uoregon.edu/klio/im/gr/croesus_pyre.jpg"]] || * Sparta limited its inhabitants, confining them to a lifestyle of training. Boys, at 7 years old were sent to "companies," where they were forced into training, until 20, when they would enlist in the army.
 * emphasized war
 * Spartan elders would test a newborn baby for deformities
 * if deformed, tossed into a gorge
 * if healthy, were put to training to become a soldier
 * women weren't bound to the home; Sparta mandated that healthy women bore healthy children, and therefore, must train and stay fit.[[image:http://karenswhimsy.com/public-domain-images/spartan-warriors/images/spartan-warriors-5.jpg width="240" height="221" caption="Spartan Warrior; http://karenswhimsy.com/public-domain-images/spartan-warriors/images/spartan-warriors-5.jpg"]] ||
 * ===Religious=== |||| * both Athens and Sparta worshipped Greek gods and goddesses and bravery on war-front ||
 * ===Cultural/ Intellectual=== || * grew in fields of infrastructure and culture
 * fair share of power for the people
 * able to attend school, joining military/ navy was optional. || * focused on expansion of power and gaining control of neighboring kingdoms --> military stronghold
 * belief in total loyalty to state ||
 * |||| ***** high interests in music and art ||

Thesis:
Although Athens and Sparta are both Greek cities, and both worship Greek gods and goddesses, they differ in many aspects. Sparta had a more restrictive government, while Athen's had a more liberal, open way of govern, which affected the daily lives of both societies.

Summary:
Athens and Sparta differed in political, cultural, and economic aspects. They were similar, in the sense that both were cities of Ancient Greece, and worshipped Greek gods and goddesses. Athens operated under a democracy, in which upper class men were able to elect a ruler. Their government showed less restrictions, and allowed Athenians to travel, enjoy arts, literature, and politics. Athens embraced creativity, and for male members of society, education was well and they were free to pursue arts and sciences. Sparta, however, operated under a oligarchy, 5 ephors and a council of 20 elders presided over Sparta. They were elected by men over age 30. Sparta also confined boys, by the age of 7, to a life of training, until they are 20, and then, they are obligated to enlist in the army. Sparta emphasized war, whereas Athens had favored arts and education. The economics of Athens revolved around trading, establishing itself as the foremost trading power of Mediterranean Sea by 5th century B.C.E. Sparta, on the other hand, had been, for the most part, an agricultural society, occasionally trading metals. Athens also flourished in the field of infrastructure and culture. It also advocated fair share of power for the people. Sparta focused on expansion of power and spreading influence. It believed in total loyalty to the state.

004 Empires: Greece Documentary:
· 508 B.C. 5 centuries before birth of Christ, in Athens, pandemonium ruled streets, ordinary demanded freedom from centuries of oppression. · Clisthenes born around 570 B.C. – Athenian nobleman saw that ordinary people should have freedom and to govern themselves. Born in palace, richest families of Greece · set his fellow Greeks on path to empire. · Alcaminads – Clisthenes family, grew up in a world of privileges · Herodotus claims that Clisthenes grandfather once performed favor for Clesus, and gave him gold dust in return. · Clisthenes was told to be an aristocrat, and in his home town, in 6th century B.C., they controlled everything. Lived in Hella peninsula. · Built around acroplolis, a stronghold to fend off attacks from neighbors. Homes of farmers and tradesmen, of mudbrick, were outside the acropolis · Women spin, cook, and wove in home. were mostly illiterate, life rate was 15 years. · no equality, lived under yoke of aristocrats · Aristotle believed government was injustice, were in a state of serfdom, with no share or part in anything à power in hands of few. Aristocratic elite held power at the expense of everyone else. · Greece had mostly mt ranges, seemed impossible for a ruler to dominate fragmented world. Greece was divided into city-states, independent with culture and history, over 1000 during Clisthenes time. City-states sought to maintain its own independence, sometimes successfully or unsuccessfully. · Corinthins dominated Greek trade, with Egypt, India · Spartan were brought up from birth to be soldiers, raised in field, away from family, lives structure around discipline and war. Ruthless expansionists, by Clisthenes time, conquered over 4000 sq miles. · Helots were forced to toil in fields by Spartans, declared war on Helots every year à ruled with iron fist. · Stories, ancient tales and myths inspired the Greeks, country was criss-crossed by thousands of bonds, people memorized much poems and stories. Travelling bonds influenced Clisthenes. · Iliad and Odyssey by Homer · Heroes were do-ers of good. Images of greek heroes are depicted in all Greek arts à Achilles was model of heroes · Middle of 6th century, one man seizes government as a tyrant à Herodotus preserved story, one day man of dignified and noble bearing strolled into Athens, with a woman who looked like Athen, and demanded power as leader. Pysitricis turned to common Athenians for support, undermined hierarchy. He reduced taxes and offered free loans for people to build farms. He began to transform Athens by allowing people to prosper- success of agrarianism, more vines and olives. · Olives were valuable economic commodity, served as cooking oil, lubricant, etc. Greece is bounded by Persian empire, Etruscans, Romans. Eastern Mediterranean = greatest marketplace trades goods, food, etc. from other countries for olive oil. · Greatest artistic legacy = vase, pottery. Cirimacas was potters workplace. Artisan/ potter had not certain respect, unenvied by society. Vase were used to hold oils and foods. Vases are now more valuable than before, worth millions. · Pysitricis died in 527 B.C., and his son Hippias took over, ruling Athens with a fair hand. Athenians soon realized perilous nature of tyranny, and was murdered. · Aristotle described Hippias tyranny as cruel, with many executions to avenge his brother death in 514 B.C. He has no cause, other than self-preservation. · Clisthenes tried to overthrow Hippias, to gain prominence for him and his family. He assembled conspiracy to overthrow Hippias, captured and banished from Athens forever. 510 B.C., Clisthenes followed heroic myths and gained power. · Olympics were highlights of Greece, founded in 776 B.C. beginning as a game for the wealthy and eventually permitted all classes. Games such as chariot races, running, wrestling, boxing took place. No prize, but wreath of olives and fame. Competitions were restricted to men, no women, not even in stadium. · Isagris was an Athenian aristocrat that conspired against Clisthenes, turning outside Athens for support, to Sparta. Spartans provided Isagris with power to oppose Clisthenes, was ready to turn Athens into subject force of Sparta. He ruled atop the acropolis. · First target of new ruler were aristocrats, esp. Clisthenes. Over 700 households were cast out of Athens. Ordinary people took destiny into their own hands, rose up in revolution. · 508 B.C. was Athens first step to empire. The people had turned on their rulers and seized power for themselves. They turned to Clisthenes, for direction and building of new government à government was decided by vote, white pebble for yes, black pebble for no. Democracy · Gathered every 9 days to discuss issues, from tax, to road building, to war. The rich and poor alike could become heroes in government. · Perisans were greatest power of the day. Mobilized force of 30,000 to attack Athens, fearing that it would pose a threat. Thesis: Tyrannical government and geographic ﻿ location contributed to the development of Athens. Because of the tyranny of Isagris, Athenians were inclined to rebel and create a different method of rule. ﻿due to polarization of classes, geographic location = Dan Power-hungry rulers, growth of trade, passing ideas of stories, ie. Illiad = Kevin

005 ESPIRIT Chart of Greece

 * E || Greek and Roman economies revolved around commercial agriculture, trade, and slavery
 * Farmers
 * gathered annually for a spring passion play to celebrate recoveryof the goddess of fertility from the lower world
 * free farmers, those who owned their own land, prospered in early days of the Greek city-states and later around Rome.
 * Rome
 * frequent for landlords to force farmers to become tenants of laborers ot to join crowds of urban lower class
 * olives and grapes had been staple crops, for cooking and winemaking
 * took long time to produce, causing debt
 * landlords took advantage of independent farmers, for they could enter the market production on large scale because they had greater access to capital
 * traded olive oil for manufactured products and silver with Middle East
 * grain was known as staple of life
 * Slavery was key, providing a source of free labor
 * household servants --> tutoring upperclass children
 * workers in mines --> precious metals and iron
 * labor force for Athen's empire and commercial operations
 * Sparta --> slaves for agricultural work
 * military force ||
 * S || Social structure focused on family ties and wealth.
 * emphasized importance of tight family structure
 * paternalistic, with father in command
 * women had important economic function; farming and artisan societies.
 * Rome: women exercised great power and influence within household.
 * outside of household, women were powerless
 * women had low status, in families burdened with too many children, fenale infants were put to death
 * early Roman law:
 * "husband is the judge of his wife:"
 * "if she commits a fault, he punishes her"
 * "if she drinks wine, he condemns her"
 * "if she has been guilty of adultery, he kills her"
 * if a woman is divorced because of adultery, she loses 1/3 of property and had to wear special garments reminiscent of a prostitute
 * Slaves
 * lowest class, most harsh conditions ||
 * P || * Greece and Rome had been ruled by aristocrats and also displayed certain elements of democracy.
 * Greek --> city-states/ democracy
 * committee convened every 10 days
 * executive officers, including judges, were chosen for brief terms to control their power, subject to review by public assembly
 * chosen by lot
 * Greek men were only involved
 * women and foreigners were not involved
 * Greek tyrants
 * effective
 * promoted public works and protecting common people against abuses of aristocracy
 * Sparta
 * ruled by militaristic aristocracy intent on retaining power over a large slave population
 * Rome --> Republic
 * Senate
 * mostly aristocrats
 * controlled most executive offices
 * 2 consuls shared power, but in times of crisis, Senate could choose a dictator to hold emergency authority
 * emphasis on the people to make laws
 * 450 B.C.E. Twelve Tablets
 * first code of law
 * restrain upper classes from arbitrary action and to subject them
 * laws were able to be altered according to certain conditions
 * Accepted different religons, as long as they remained loyal to the state ||
 * I || * Architecture/ Infrastructure
 * aqueducts for water transportation
 * roads
 * archs to support heavy weight
 * built domes
 * Doric
 * Ionic
 * Corinthian
 * Literature/ poetry
 * Homer, wrote Illiad and Odyssey
 * comedies and tragedies --> invokes emotion relating to human reason
 * poetry in Latin
 * philosopy -->spread across eastern half of Mediterranean
 * Aristotle
 * stressed importance of moderation and balance in human behavior
 * collected biological data
 * Cicero
 * Socrates
 * encouraged pupils to question conventional wisdom
 * Greek interest
 * order of physical nature
 * Pottery and painting
 * vases
 * sculptures
 * Astronomy
 * Ptolemy's theory
 * Sun's rotation around Earth
 * Mathematics
 * Geometry ||
 * R || * religion was diverse and politically inspired, affected politics and cultural values through diversifying the political goal and presenting no sense of religious significance in art ,literature, or life - Harris
 * by the end of fall of rome, 1313, Constantine created religion of Christianity to maintain empire and unite people
 * Greece and Rome publicly held ceremonies in order to attract unification of its people "politically inspired ceremony
 * Christianity was attacked by Roman, because they did not support state
 * Rome allowed many religions, so people would remain loyal to state.
 * empires tried to gain more popularity by calling themselved "God", in that they were serving a god.
 * There was no official religion, not significanty, primitive and Christianity only gained power towards the end of the empire
 * Because there was no real power in religion, people in Rome resorted to philosophy, such as Aristotle, Cicero, who philosophiled moderation, balance, and justice. - HaRRis ||
 * I || [[image:http://www.brads-healthy-lifestyle.com/images/learnenglish-central-stories-ancient-olympics-330x220.jpg width="266" height="297" align="center" caption="Marathon; http://www.brads-healthy-lifestyle.com/images/learnenglish-central-stories-ancient-olympics-330x220.jpg"]]

* "Extensive road system "All roads lead to rome" Other achievements include : ([])
 * city-states often joined in regular celebrations, such as athletic competitions of the **Olympic Games**
 * Athens and Sparta became leading **city-states**
 * trade flourished under city-state sponsorship
 * Olives/ olive oil had been a profitable Greek export, accounting for a substantial amount of the Greek economy.
 * traded wine, manufactured products and silver
 * Led to interaction with Middle East, Rome, India, and China
 * Persian invasion, between 400 and 449 B.C.E. --> Sparta, Athens, along with other smaller city-states worked in unison to defend Greece
 * **Peloponnesian Wars(**431-404 B.C.E.) Athens v. Sparta
 * **Philip II** and Alexander the Great of Macedonia
 * extended Macedonian empire through Middle East across Persia to the border of India, and southward through Egypt.
 * Hellenistic period
 * Greek art and culture merged with other Middle East forms
 * Rome:
 * 509 B.C.E. Roman republic extended influenceover all of Italian peninsula
 * **Punic Wars**(264-146 B.C.E.)
 * Rome fought armies of Phoenician city of Carthage of northern coast of Africa
 * 476 C.E. government in Rome overturned by invaders of the north
 * economy faltered, trade and birth levels decreased
 * Marucus Aurealis took over Roman empire in 180 B.C.E. pushed northward taking over France, Southern Britain and pushing into Germany- Tamisha ||
 * T || Greece:
 * written language with letters derived from Phoenician alphabet
 * 5th century B.C.E. - Athenian politics, i.e. Pericles.
 * utilization of slave labor
 * Sculpture and architecture
 * Greeks excelled in ceramic work
 * Roman painters produced realistic and sometimes pornographic decorations for homes of wealthy
 * sculptors
 * Sophicles, Pericles, Socrates, Phidias developed images of human form, from lovely goddesses to warriors and athletes.
 * modeled scenes of Roman conquests
 * 8th century B.C.E. Greek architecture emphasized monumental construction, square or rectangle in shape with columned porticoes.
 * 3 embellishments for tops of columns supporting massive buildings:
 * Doric
 * Ionic
 * Corinthian
 * built ships for travel, trade, war
 * Greek pottery
 * vase, used to store goods and depicted battles, religion, etc.
 * metal tools were used in agriculture
 * Aqueducts, and advanced systems of plumbing
 * Fast drying cement, which greatly aided construction projects.
 * Month System(January=Janus, March=Mars, etc...)
 * Good medical tools (inherited from the greeks), and cauterization techniques.
 * Large amounts of War-machines, such as the seige engine, and powerful catapults/ballistae called "Wild Asses"

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 * Candles - sticks of animal fat which the legionaries could even eat in times of starvation.
 * Mangle for ironing
 * Scissors
 * Magnifying glass
 * shoe soles made of cork
 * Different shoe shapes for left and right foot. Read about [[[]
 * Bikinis
 * Showers (not to mentions their development of [|great public buildings such as spas and heated pools], gymnasiums, [|public libraries] etc)
 * Postal system
 * Street lighting (only towards the end of the empire)
 * Unruly supporters and hooliganism at the stadiums
 * Brides dressed in white being carried over the threshold of their new home. [|Ancient Roman Weddings]. " **Terry﻿**

006: Greece and Rome Key Terms:
**Hellenistic period**: years following the conquests of Alexander the Great, which expanded Greek influence through his military empire. Greek art and culture merged with other Middle East forms. **Cyrus the Great**: developed a large Persian empire across the northern Middle East and into northwestern India Zoroastrianism: **religion developed by the Persians, even though they had been tolerant of local customs.** **City-state:** operated as the alternative to government, usually ruled by a tyranny of one ruler or an aristocratic council. The city-state served Greece well, for the peninsula was so divided by mountains that a unified government would have been difficult to establish. Under city-state sponsorship, trade proliferated and cultural forms, such as an alphabet derived from Phoenician letters speread throughout the peninsula. **Olympic games:** method of interaction between city-states, in which city states would join in regular celebrations **Sparta:** had a strong military aristocracy dominating a slave population **Athens:** diverse commercial state, utilizing slave labor and expressing artistic and intellectual leadership. **Pericles:** dominated Athenian politics. He was an aristocrat and part of a democratic political structure in which each citizen could participate in city-state assemblies to select officals and pass laws. Pericles helped restrain some of the more aggressive views of Athenian democrats, who urged further expansion of the empire to gather more wealth and expand economy. **Peloponnesian Wars(431-404 B.C.E):** power struggle over Greece between Athens and Sparta, in which Sparta emerged victorious. **Philip II of Macedon/ Alexander the Great:** won Peloponnesian War in 338 B.C.E., and expanded Macedonia Empire through Middle East, across Persia to the border of India, and southward through Egypt. **Roman republic:** established around 509 B.C.E., when Roman aristocrats toppled their monarchy. The Roman republic gradually extended its influence over the rest of the Italian peninsula, among conquering the Greek colonies in the South. The Romans had been highly military oriented, having its incentives initially to protect its territory from possible rivals. **Punic Wars:** 264- 146 B.C.E. result of Roman conquest, the Punic Wars involved Rome and armies of the Phoenician city of Carthage, centered on the northern coast of Africa. The wars included the defeat of Carthaginian general Hannibal. To conclude the war, the Romans sprinkled salt around Carthage to prevent fertility of land. **Hannibal:** Carthaginian general, who troops were accompanied by elephants. **Julius Caesar:** emerged victorious out of Roman civil wars between two generals, in 45 B.C.E. During his rise to power, the Roman republic drifted towards instability, while generals sought greater power. His emergence to control proved to be the end of traditional institutions of the Roman state. **Augustus Caesar:** seized power in 27 B.C.E., and was Julius Caesar’s grand nephew. Caesar rose to fame after a period of rivalry post his grand uncle’s assassination. He established the basic structures of the Roman empire. **Marcus Aurelius:** reigned in 180 C.E., Aurelius maintained a period of peace and prosperity to the entire Mediterranean world. After Aurelius, the emperors also moved northward, conquering France and southern Britain and pushing into Germany. **Diocletian/ Constantine:** By 476 B.C.E., Rome had been succumbed by foreign invaders, with economic deterioration and population loss, until the rise of emperors, such as Diocletian and Constantine, who attempted to revitalize Roman economy and population. In 313, Constantine adopted Christianity as an attempt to unite the Roman empire in new ways. It was during this time, that, in the western half, effective government became local, as imperial administration could no longer guarantee order or provide a system of justice. **Polis:** Greek word for city-states, which suggests that intense political interests were part of life in a city-state in both Greece and Rome. A “good life” for an upper-class Athenian or Roman involved participation in politics and frequent discussions about affairs of state. **Direct democracy:** by 5th century Athens, the major decisions of state were made by general assemblies in which all citizens could participate. Direct democracy revolved around the idea of not ruling through elected representatives. The assembly met every 10 days, and the executive officers, including judges, were chosen for brief terms to control their power, and were subject to review by the assembly. **Senate:** most important legislative body of Roman republic, composed mainly of aristocrats, whose members held virtually all executive offices in the Roman state. **Consul:** exercised primary executive power, and operated in a pair in Rome. In times of crisis, however, they would not have power, and instead, have the senate select a dictator to hold emergency authority until crisis has transpired. **Cicero:** an active senator and Roman writer, he, like many writers, expounded on political ethics, duties of citizens, importance of incorruptible service, key political skills, such as oratory. His writing emphasized participation in deliberate bodies that would make laws and judge the actions of executive officers. **Twelve Tables:** first code of law introduced by the Roman republic in 450 B.C.E. These laws were intended to restrain the upper classes from arbitrary action and to subject them, as well as ordinary people, to some common legal principles. The Roman empire believed that the laws could be adjusted accordingly. **Aristotle:** a philosopher, whom, among other Greek philosophers, sought a separate model for ethical behavior. He stressed the importance of moderation and balance in human behavior as opposed to the instability of much political life and the excesses of gods themselves. **Stoics:** emphasized an inner moral independence, to be awakened by strict discipline of the body and by personal bravery. **Socrates:** from Athens, born in 469 B.C.E., encouraged his pupils to question conventional wisdom, on the grounds that the chief human duty was the “improvement of the soul.” He maligned image of Athenian government. The Socratic principle of rational inquiry by means of skeptical questioning became a recurrent strand in classical Greek thinking and in its heritage to later societies. **Plato:** Socrates’ pupil, Plato accentuated the positive somewhat more strongly by suggesting that human reason could approach an understanding of the three perfect forms—absolutely True, Good, and Beautiful, which he believed characterized nature. **Sophocles:** Athenian dramatist who portrayed the psychological flaws of Oedipus that modern psychology long used the term Oedipus complex to refer to a potentially unhealthy relationship between a man and his mother. **Iliad and Odyssey:** two epics written by Homer, who lived in the 8th century B.C.E. Epics linked Roman history and Greek mythology.

007: Greece and Rome Comparison/ Summary:
Greece and Rome coincided in that both were located on the Mediterranean peninsula, developed a government that derived power from its people, proliferated under trade and agriculture, and are imperialistic. In Greece, a **democratic** government developed, in which the people would convene every 10 days to discuss city affairs. Executive officers, such as judges were chosen for brief terms of power, and were subject to review by public assembly. The Greeks operated in **city-states**, under autocratic rule, which directed power in the hands of the people. Roman government was very similar to that of Greece, in that their power was also derived from the people, and the city sought the people to establish regulations. In the Roman **republic**, the senate ruled, with 2 **consuls** that shard power. The two would check and balance each other on terms of laws and enforcement. In 450 B.C.E., the **Twelve Tables** was introduced, which restrained the upper classes from exercising arbitrary action. Laws could be altered accordingly by the people, under certain circumstances. In both societies, the **republic** and **democracy** were intended to protect the people from the abuses of the aristocracy. The two societies also flourished in agriculture, namely grapes and olives. Both profited from grapes and olives, which became chief exports. In Greece, trade was supported by **city-state** sponsorship. Olives and olive oil were profitable Greek exports, accounting for a substantial amount of the Greek economy. They also traded wine, manufactured products, and silver. This led to interactions with Middle East, Rome, India, and China. Greece and Rome were both imperialistic societies. Greece, during the rule of **Alexander the Great**, extended through Middle East across the Persian border of India, and southward through Egypt. The period after this expansion, the **Hellenistic** period, Greek art and culture collided with other Middle East forms. Rome, by 509 B.C.E., extended influence all over the Italian peninsula. In 180 B.C.E., Roman emperor **Marcus Aurelius** expanded the empire northward, by conquering France, Southern Britain, and pushing into Germany. From 264- 146 B.C.E., the **Punic Wars**, the Romans fought against the Carthaginians of the northern coast of Africa, defending their territory from invasion. Although they did not conquer the same regions, both Greece and Rome expanded beyond their original territories.

Despite their similarities, differences in intellectual development distinguished the societies of Rome and Greece. The Greeks developed a written language from Phoenician alphabet, while the Romans developed Latin as their official language. They also prospered in the field of literature, as **Homer** gained prominence with his epics, **Odyssey** and **Iliad**. Greek tragedies and comedies emerged as a form of entertainment. The Greeks also focused on philosophy, with the works of **Aristotle, Cicero, and Socrates**. Aristotle stressed the importance of moderation and balance in human behavior, as well as collected biological data. In conjunction to literary innovations, the Greeks also advanced in sciences and math. In astronomy, the Greeks, under P**tolemy**, developed theories about the planets, and the idea that the Sun rotated around the Earth. In mathematics, they developed basis for geometry, and **Pythagoras theorem**. They also made pottery (vase) and sculptures and painted on those creations. The Greeks constructed ships for war, travel, and trade. On the other hand, the Romans made advances in infrastructure, constructing **aqueducts** to convey water. With aqueducts, came the emergence of showers and public baths. The Romans made arches to support heavy objects, as well as roads for traveling. Fast drying cement also came into society, proving to be ideal for construction projects. Where the Greeks advanced more intellectually, the Romans developed in more technological improvements.

008 Comparison between Han China and Rome: Collaboration with Tamisha Claude and Terry Mitchell
Pirate Pad on Han China and Rome