Middle+East

Middle East Add Kazakstan and surrounding regions + North Africa b/c that was where most of the Muslim empires were centered: Near-east: Ukraine, Greece, etc. Middle East: Far East: based on language, shared histories, shared traditions, geographic entities, ie. Arabian peninsula
 * [[image:Capture.PNG align="center" caption="I believe this is the location of the Middle East, keeping in mind that it is "middle" and "east." I also kept in mind that the culture of the region is predominantly Islamic and similar. When I think of "Middle East" I think of the region b/t North Africa and Southeast Asia."]] ||
 * I believe this is the location of the Middle East, keeping in mind that it is "middle" and "east." I also kept in mind that the culture of the region is predominantly Islamic and similar. When I think of "Middle East" I think of the region b/t North Africa and Southeast Asia. ||


 * [[image:trap.PNG align="center" caption="Identity brainstorm of Middle East"]] ||
 * Identity brainstorm of Middle East ||

Google Doc Presentation of "Whats in, Whats Out?" **Reflection:** In my identity chart, I included culture, politics, religion, and history as potential factors in deciding the countries that comprised of the Middle Eastern region. I was wrong to think that countries considered in the "Middle East" had to be situated on the Arabian peninsula. This is not the case, as show by Egypt, because it is more heavily based on political affiliation rather than primarily on geographic location. I was also wrong in believing that the countries in the Middle East had to speak Arabic. Iran would be an exception to such an assumption, for its national language is Persian. In my map, I did not include regions, such as Egypt, because I considered only geographic factors, and focused on the regions that would be geographically considered as the "Middle" east. When deciding which regions belong in the Middle East, important factors to consider are cultural similarities, political affiliations/ impact, religion, and historical background.


 * Notes: pg. 661-666**
 * Egypt and the Rise of Nationalism in the Middle East:**
 * **MI: Prior to European occupation of Egypt, the country was already subject to nationalist tendencies.**
 * risings touched off by the mutiny of Ahmad Orabi and other Egyptian officers led to British occupation in 1882
 * aimed at liberation of the Egyptian people from their alien Turkish overlords and Europeans
 * British colonization = double colonization for Egyptian people by Turkish khedives and British advisors
 * following British conquest, government policy was governed by strong-willed imperial leader **Lord Cromer**
 * pushed for necessary economic reforms in bureaucracy and construction of irrigation systems and other public works projects
 * British prosperity brought to Egypt was shared by middle and elite classes at the expense of the mass of the population
 * leading beneficiaries are Turco-Egyptian political elite, small Egyptian burgeoisie in Cairo and other towns in Nile delta
 * British forced to rely heavily on local, estate-owning notables in extending their control into rural areas
 * ayan received most benefits of new irrigation works, building of railways, and increasing orientation of Egyptian agriculture to production of Egyptian agriculture to production of raw cotton for exportation
 * allowed ayans to gain larger estates by turning smallholder owners into landless tenants and laborers
 * great social distinctions:
 * landlords' estate houses vs. thatch and mud-walled villages
 * khedival regime and great landlords were closely associated with the British overlords, so much of the resistance was centered around the middle class
 * middle of 19th century- middle class increased in numbers and gained great prominence in towns around the Nile delta
 * memory of Orabi's revolt in 1882 served as motivation force
 * taken by the sons of **effendi**, or prosperous business and professional families that made up much of the middle class
 * 1890s- 1900s, numerous newspapers in Arabic vied to expose the mistakes of the British and corruption of the khedival empire
 * Egyptian writers attacked British for racist arrogance and their monopolization of well-paying positions in Egyptian bureaucracy
 * 1890s, first nationalist party was formed
 * Congress party dominated the nationalist movement from the outset, were three main alternatives by 1907
 * none could speak for great majority of Egyptians, due to illiteracy, poor wages, and largely ignore urban laborers and rural farmers
 * years before WWI in 1914, intense British repression on sevreral occcasions put down student riots and retaliated for assassinations attempts against British and Turco-Egyptian officials
 * Egyptian masses demonstrated by Dinshawai incident in 1906
 * exemplified racial arrogance displayed by most of the European colonizers
 * excessive British response to it did much to undermine whatever support remained for their continued presence in Egypt
 * many Egyptian villages raised large numbers of pigeons, which served as an important supplement to meager peasant diet
 * over the years, some British turned pigeon hunting into holiday pasttime
 * one incident recounted the shooting of the wife of a prayer leader of a local mosque
 * angry villagers outnumbered the shooting party, leading to the hanging of four villagers
 * aroused storm of protests in the Egyptian press and mong the nationalist parties
 * some Egyptian leaders later recounted how the incident convinced them that cooperation with the British was unacceptable and fixed their resolve to agiate for end to Egypt's occupations
 * led to popular protest in several areaas, emergence of ayan support for nationalist cause, and possibility of building a mass base for anti-British agitation
 * 1913- British intimidated rising tide of Egyptian nationalism to grant a constitution and representation in a parliament elected indirectly by the men of wealth and influence
 * British agitation temporary ended by WWI and declaration of martial law
 * **WWI:** 1916- secret agreement bw British and French Sykes Picot Agreement
 * 1917 = Balfour Declaration = promised land to zionists(US support) and arabs(Arab support)
 * 1918- Wilsons 14 Pts = hope for middle east
 * 1919 = middle = mandates --> grants of land --> by L . O. N.
 * 2 mandates = Syria + Lebanon
 * rest = British
 * future war? --> OIL.
 * 1930s- British + US -> drilling in M.E.(Kuwait --> US on S. Arabia)
 * **WWII**: protecting oil supplies = key
 * Holocaust --> 1948 Israel is created!
 * invaded by Egypt, Syria, Trans-Jordan, Lebanon, Iraq
 * 1949 --> Israel = bigger!
 * West and ME connections parted
 * Pan-arabism
 * War and Nationalist Movements in the Middle East**
 * **MI: In the years following WWI, resistance to European colonial domination was confined largely to Egypt in prewar years, but spread to much of the rest of the Middle East.**
 * Turks defeated b/c they joined Central Powers
 * Ottoman disappeared
 * Britain and France took Arab portions that had revolted against the Young Turk regime
 * Italy and Greece attacked Turkish Constantinople and in Anatolia with intent of sparking a partition of theses areas with the Entente
 * Mustafa Kemal, or Ataturk emerged for Turkish officer corps during the wars years
 * rallied the Turkish forces and gradually drove back the Greek armies intent on colonizing Turkish homeland
 * Ataturk launched sweeping program of reforms, many of which were modeled after Western precedents
 * latin alphabet, women's suffrage, criticism of the veil
 * secularized and developed Turkey
 * with Turkish rule in Arab heartlands ended by war, Arab nationalists in Beirut, Damascus, and Baghdad turned to face the Entente powers, France and Britain
 * betraying promises to preserve Arab independence, made in 1915-1916, British and French forces occupied much of Middle East in years after the war
 * Hussein, sherif of Mecca, used such promises to convince Arabs to rise in support of Britain's war against the Turks
 * occupying European powers faced stiff resistance from Arabs in each of the mandates they carved out in Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon under the League of Nations
 * 1920s-302, national movements in these countries gained ground
 * British promise of Palestine confused Jewish Zionists and Arabs
 * despite repeated assurances to Hussein and other Arab leaders that would be left in control of their own lands after war, Lord Balfour, British foreign secretary, promised Zionist leaders in 1917, that his gov't would promote est. of Jewish homeland in Palestine after the war
 * Balfour Declaration was approved by British War Cabinet and fed Zionist aspirations for Jewish people to return to their ancient Middle Eastern lands of origin
 * promoted Jewish emigration to Palestine
 * these early moves were made in direct response to persecution of Jews in Eastern Europe
 * pogroms, or violent assaults on Jewish community of Russia and Romania, in 1860s-70s convinced Jewish intellectuals, such as Leon Pinsker that Jews assimilated into Christian culture was impossible
 * Society for Colonization promoted Jewish migration to Palestine
 * until the late 1890s, Jews in Europe with citizenship and rights opposed Zionist effort
 * support for Zionist cause = Theodor Herzl, an established Austrian journalist, wrote of subsequent mistreatment, ie. exile to infamous penal colony on Devil's island --> Alfred Dreyfus, a French Jew who leaked military secrets to Germans
 * 1897- Herzl formed the World Zionist Organization, along w/ other Zionists
 * Lord Balfour's promises to Zionists and British takeover of Palestine struck ARabs as a betrayal of wartime assurances that Arab support for Entente powers against the Turks would guarantee them independence after war
 * led to hostility Arabs felt toward Jewish emigration to Palestine and their purchase of land in the area
 * Revolt in Egypt, 1919**
 * **MI: Because Egypt was already occupied by the British when war broke out, and it had been formally declared a protectorate in 1914, it was not included in the promises made by the British to sherif Hussein. This caused the anticolonial struggle in Egypt, which was shaped by earlier agitation and heavy toll of war, esp. on the peasantry.**
 * during war, defense of the Suez canal was one of the main priorities of the British


 * to guard against Muslim uprising in response to Turkish calls for holy war, martial law was declared after hostilities began
 * throughout the war, large contingents of Entente and empire forces were garrisoned in Egypt
 * created heavy drain on increasingly scarce food supplied in the area
 * forced labor and confiscations by military of precious draft animals led to widespread discontent
 * war dragged on = inflation, food shortages, and starvation
 * mass discontent strengthened resolve of the educated nationalist elite to demand a hearing at Versailles, where the victorious Allies were struggling to reach a postwar settlement
 * delegation of Egyptian leaders denied permission to travel to France to put the case for Egyptian self-determinism to peacemakers at Versailles
 * most Egyptian leaders resigned from the gov't and called for mass demonstrations
 * British was able to regain control, but the need to hear the Egyptians out became evident
 * emergence of Wafd party under its hard-driving leader Sa'd Zaghlul provided the nationalists with a focus for unified action and a mass base that far excelled any they attracted in prewar decades
 * when special British commission of inquiry into the causes of the upheaval in Egypt met with widespread civil disobedience and continuing violent opposition, it recommended that the British begin negotiations for an eventual withdraw from Egypt
 * British withrawal to Suez Canal zone in 1936
 * khedival regime was preserved and British reserved the right to reoccupy Egypt should it be threatened by a foreign aggressor
 * though a significant amount of political independence was gained, the Egyptian leaders of the Wafd Party, and its rivals in the Liberal Constitutionalist and Union parties did little to relieve the increasing misery of the great majority
 * need for land reforms and public works projects not pushed
 * social bankruptcy of 40 years of nationalist political dominance that preceded the coup and social revolution led by Gamal Abdul Nasser in 1952


 * mass of the people = 98% peasants illiterate, malnutrition, 95% suffered from eye diseases


 * p. 727-729 Notes: Conflicting Nationalisms: Arabs, Israelis, and the Palestinian Question:**
 * **MI: Along with Egypt, several Middle Eastern states, including Iraq and Syria, had technically gained independence between the world wars, though European influence remained high. With WWII, independence became more complete, though it was not until the 1970s that governments were strong enough to shake off Western dominance of oil fields.**
 * Egypt's 1952 revolt and independence movements in the rest of north Africa gained ground, despite struggle against France in Algeria was prolonged
 * almost all Arab peoples who were not yet freed, were liberated by early 1960s, but the fate of Palestine continued to raise more problems
 * Hitler's campaign of Jewish genocide provided powerful support for Zionists' insistence that the Jews must have their own homeland, which more and more was conceived in terms of a modern national state
 * campaign's brutality also won sympathy of Zionists, due, in part, to the fact that the leaders of many nations, including US and Britain, were reluctant to admit Jews fleeing the Nazi terror in their own countries
 * high Jewish immigration to Palestine --< communal rioting, violent assaults on Zionist communities led to increasing British restrictions of Jewish entrance
 * 1936-39- major Muslim revolt swept Palestine
 * British managed to put down with great difficulty
 * decimated leadership of Palestinian Arab community and further strengthened British resolve to stem flow of Jewish immigrants to Palestine
 * gov't measures to keep Jewish refugees from Nazi oppression led to violent Zionist resistance to British presence in Palestine
 * Zionist assault was led by regular Zionist military force, Haganah, and several underground terrorist organizations
 * By end of WWII, the major parties claiming Palestine were in a locked in stalemate
 * Zionists were determined to carve out a Jewish state in the region
 * Palestinian Arabs were determined to transform Palestine into a multireligious nation in which the position of the Arab majority would be ensured
 * British wanted to scuttle and run
 * 1937 report of a British commission of inquiry supplied possible solution: partition
 * US provided an international body that could give a semblance of legality to proceedings
 * 1948- sympathies for Jews increased b/c of Hitler's Final Solution
 * member states of the United Nations, with the US and SU approved the partition of Palestine into Arab and Jewish countries
 * the Arab states that bordered the newly created nation of Israel opposed such action
 * soon the two sides engaged in warfare
 * Zionists, though outnumbered, proved better armed and prepared to defend themselves
 * held onto the little land given to them by the UN, and expanded it at the Arab's expense
 * brief by bloody war created hundreds of thousands of Palestinian Arab refugees
 * sealing persisting hostility b/t Arabs and Israelis

Notes: pg.798 - 801 802-804 In-Depth: 666-667 1.)Missionary education of women may have created more awareness of women to war and help them understand some of the properganda that was occurring around them. This would strengthen women's desire to help the cause, and like in the Gandhi movement, women wove cloths to boycott British produced linen. 2.) rebellion more oriented around men, males assumed leadership, went overseas for war, women stayed on the homefront and manage families
 * Military Responses: Dictatorships and Revolution**
 * **MI: Given the difficulties that leaders such as Nkrumah faced after independence and the advantages military have in crisis situations, the proliferation of coups in the emerging nations is not surprising. Armed forces have at times been divided by the religious and ethnic rivalries that have been so disruptive in new nations.**
 * many leaders at the time were anti-communist and opposed dictatorship.
 * in conditions of political breakdown, the military wielded the monopoly to restore order
 * occupational conditioning make soldiers not only more ready than civilian leaders at their disposal, but less concerned with destructive consequences
 * once in control, military leaders have banned civilian political parties and imposed military regimes of varying degrees of repression and authoritarian control
 * the ends to which these regimes put their dictatorial powers differed greatly
 * these regimes existed mainly to enrich military leaders and allies
 * military governments of this caliber have been notorious for imprisoning, torturing, or eliminating political dissidents
 * in few cases, military leaders have been radical in approaches to economic and social reform
 * **Gamal Abdul Nasser** took power in Egypt after a coup in 1952
 * self-centered and civilian politics and corrupt khedival regime had done little to improve the standard of living of the mass of the Egyptian people
 * conditions worsened and government did little but rake in wealth for their elitist memberships, revolutionary forces emerged
 * Free Officers movement, the radical movement that succeeded in gaining power, evolved from a secret organization est. in Egyptian army in 1930s --> founded by young Egyptians rather than Turco-Egyptian descent
 * Revolutionary Command Council studied conditions in the country and prepared to seie power in the name of a genuine revolution
 * allied to the M**uslim Brotherhood,** another revolutionary alternative to khedival regime
 * founded by **Hasan al-Banna** in 1928
 * developed contempt for the wealthy minority of Egyptians and Europeans who flourished amidst the appalling poverty of most of his people
 * members were committed to a revivalist approach to Islam, but mainly focused on a program of social uplift and sweeping reforms
 * involved in a range of activities, from promoting trade unions and building medical clinics to educating women and pushing for land reform
 * 1930s = politicalization, strikes, urban riots, militant youth group and paramilitary assassination squads
 * After Egypt's humiliating defeats in first Arab-Israeli WAr of 1948 and in a clash with the British over occupation of the Suez Canal zone in 1952, mass anger with a discredited khedival and parliamentary regime gave the officers their chance
 * July 1952- bloodless military coup toppled corrupt regime of Farouk
 * revolution had just begun, with end to monarchy, installation of Nasser and Free officers, Egyptians ruled themselves for the first time since 6th century B.C.E.
 * By 1954, all political parties had been disbanded
 * Nasser and his followers used dictatorial powers they had won in the coup to force through programs they believed would uplift oppressed Egyptian masses
 * convinced that only state had the power to carry out essential social and economic reforms
 * land reforms measures were enacted: limits placed on how much land an individual could own, and excess lands were seized and redistributed to landless peasants
 * gov't became Egypt's main employer, by 1980, over 30% of Egypt's workforce was on state payroll
 * to est. Egypt's economic stiffness, restrictions were placed on foreign investment
 * foreign properties were seized and redistributed to Egyptian investors
 * NAsser embarked on an interventionist foreign policy that stressed the struggle to destroy newly est. Israeli state, forge Arab unity, and foment socialist revolutions in neighboring lands
 * 1956- rallied international opinion to oust British and their French allies from Suez Canal Zone
 * Althought he had moves slowly at first, Nasser's successor, **Anwar Sadat**, had little choice but to dismantle state apparatus that had been created
 * favored private over state initiatives
 * Sadat's tenure in office = power force
 * after fighting the Israelis to a stalemate in 1973, Sadat moved to end the costly confrontation w/ Israel as well as Egypt's support for revolutionary movements in the Arab world
 * expelled Russians and opened Egypt to aid and investment from US and western Europe
 * His shift in direction was controlled by his successor**, Hosni Mumbarak**
 * neither did much to check Egypt's alarming pop. increases and the corruption of bureaucracy
 * discontent led to Muslim fundamentalist movements
 * assassinated Sadat, terrorist campaigns aimed at overthrowing Mumbarak
 * Iran: Religious Revivalism and the Rejection of the West**
 * **MI: No path of development adopted by a postcolonial society has provided more fundamental changes to the existing world order than revolutionary Iran under the direction of the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. The Khomeini regime made the most fundamental changes to revolutionary Iran.**
 * Khomeini revolution of 1979 was a throwback to religious fervor of such anticolonial resistance movements as that led by Mahdi of the Sudan in 1880s
 * Core motivations for the followers of both religious movements were provided by emphasis on religious purification and rejoining of religion and politics
 * call for return to the king of society believed to have existed in the past "golden age" of prophet Muhammad was central to policies pursued by Mahdist and Iranian regimes once they gained power
 * Toppled western-backed governments
 * although they came from Sunni and Shi'a religious traditions, both Mahdi and Khomeini claimed to be divinely inspired deliverers
 * promised to rescue Islamic faithful from imperialist Westerners and corrupt and heretical leaders within the Muslim world
 * sought to wage holy wars against heretics and infidels
 * sought to build lasting state and social order on the basis of what were believed to be Islamic precedents
 * though proclaimed as an alternative for development that could be followed by the rest of the emerging nations, Khomeini's revolution owed its initial success in seizing power to a combination of circumstances that was unique to Iran
 * was not formally colonized by European powers, but rather reduced to a great spherical influence, divided b/t Great Britain and Russia
 * the shah's dictatorial and repressive regime offended emerging middle classes, whom he considered his strongest potential supporters
 * flaunting of Islamic conventions and neglect of Islamic worship and religious institutions enrage ayatollahs, or religious experts
 * alienated mullahs, or local prayer leaders and mosque attendants, who guided the religious and personal lives of the great majority of Iranian pop.
 * the favoritism the shahs showed foreign investors and a handful of big Iranian entrepreneurs with personal connections to highly placed officials angered the small bazaar merchants, who had long maintained close links with the mullahs and other religious leaders
 * reforms also alienated land-owning classes without doing much to improve conditiion of rural poor
 * urban workers, who benefited most from boom in construction and light industrialization, the shah's development efforts had stimulated dissatisfaction
 * though he treated his officers well, the shah badly neglected the military rank-and-file, esp. in the army
 * when crisis came in 1978, shah found that few soldiers were prepared to defend his regime
 * his armies refused to fire on the growing crowds that demonstrated for the removal and return of Khomeini, then in exile in Paris
 * dying of cancer and disheartened by what he considered a betrayal by people and allies such as the US, the shah fled
 * Khomeini's revolution triumphed over a regime that appeared more powerful but vulnerable
 * After coming to power, Khomeini, defying the predictions of most Western "experts" of Iranian affairs, followed through on his promises of radical change
 * constitutional and leftist parties allied to the revolutionary movement were brutally repressed
 * moderate leaders were replaced quickly by radical religious figures who were eager to obey Kohomeini's every command
 * satanic influences of US and western Europe were purged
 * Iran distanced itself from atheistic communist world
 * strict Islamic legal codes, ie punishment as amputation of limbs for theft and stoning for women caught in adultery
 * many reforms did not take place, due to Iran-Iraq War, and the determination to destroy Saddam Hussein and punish the Iraqis
 * Iran lost b/c of failing tech and Iraqi allainces to oil rich countries
 * As American support of Iraqis increased, many poorly equipped Iranian soliders died
 * personal vendetta, b/c Khomeini opposed Western-imposed gov't
 * marriage dominated, women needed to learn such skills for housework and adapt education to their lifestyle
 * place is still in the home, even though educated
 * intellect and learning revolved more around men and women learning was more centered around dependence on men

private --> public sphere women *education #'s support opportunity

1/2 - 1 page summary
Leader Analysis Sheet: Nasser 1 st President of the United Arab Republic(UAR) ||
 * Name of Leader: Gamal Abdel Nasser Hussein ||
 * Lifespan: 15 January 1918 - 28 September 1970 || Title: 2 nd President of Egypt
 * Country/region: Egypt || Years in Power: 23 June 1956 – 28 September 1970 ||
 * Political, Social, & Economic Conditions Prior to Leaders Gaining Power
 * the military wielded the monopoly to restore order
 * most military personnel had some degree of technical training, which lacked humanities-oriented education of civilian nationalist leaders
 * most leaders = anticommunist and often attracted covert technical and financial assistance from Western governments
 * once in control, military leaders have banned civilian political parties and imposed military regimes of varying degrees of repression and authoritarian control
 * Free Officers movement, the radical movement that succeeded in gaining power, evolved from a secret organization est. in Egyptian army in 1930s
 * regimes existed mainly to enrich military leaders and allies
 * military governments were notorious for imprisoning, torturing, or eliminating political dissidents
 * military governments spent large sums of money towards expensive military hardware, rather than on economic development ||
 * Ideology, Motivation, Goals:
 * spearheaded Free Officers movement
 * believed that self-centered civilian politicians and corrupt khedival regime had done little to improve standard of living of the mass of Egyptian people
 * wanted revolution in government
 * used dictatorial powers won in coup to force programs he believed would help oppressed Egyptian masses
 * convinced that only state had the power to carry out essential social and economic reforms, and as a result, intervened in all aspects of Egyptian life
 * programs for industrial growth were modeled after five-year plans of the Soviet Union
 * interventionist foreign policy that stressed the struggle to destroy newly est. Israeli state, forge Arab unity, and foment socialist revolutions in neighboring lands
 * wanted to improve public works
 * strive way from Western influences ||
 * Significant Actions & events During Term of Power:
 * land reform measures enacted: limits placed on how much land an individual could own, and excess lands were seized and redistributed to landless peasants
 * state-financed education through college level was made available to Egyptians
 * government became Egypt's main employer --> 1980 = over 30% of Egypt's workforce on state payroll
 * state-subsidiaries used to lower price of basic food supplies
 * state-controlled development schemes were introduced, emphasizing industrial growth
 * stiff restrictions placed on foreign investment
 * foreign policy coup in 1956 --> rallied international opinion to oust British and their French allies from Suez Canal Zone
 * land reform efforts frustrated by bureaucratic corruption and clever strategies devised by the landlord class to hold on to their estates
 * Aswan Dam = fail ||
 * Short-Term effects:
 * revolution and political parties
 * government employment
 * state subsidiaries to lower price of food
 * land reform measures
 * state-financed education || Long-Term Effects
 * economic crisis stemming from uncontrolled population rise
 * inability to afford all the ambitious schemes that Nasser hoped to accomplish
 * foreign investment funds dried up
 * Egyptian economy and politics continued to decline by Nasser's predecessors, Sadat and Mumbarak ||

Leader Analysis Sheet: Khomeini
 * Name of Leader: Ruhollah Mostafavi Moosavi Khomeini ||
 * Lifespan: 22 September 1902 - 3 June 1989 || Title: Grand Ayatollah Sayyed, 1st Supreme Leader of Iran ||
 * Country/region: Iran || Years in Power ||
 * Political, Social, & Economic Conditions Prior to Leaders Gaining Power:
 * Iran had not been formally colonized by European powers, but instead, reduced to a sphere of informal influence, divided b/t Great Britain and Russia
 * neither bureaucratic nor communication infrastructures that accompanied colonial takeovers
 * impetus for modernization came from Pahlavi shahs
 * initiatives taken by the second shah, supported by Iran's immense oil wealth, brought Iran out of isolationism and backwardness
 * shah fled Iran in early 1950s after nationalist leader Mohammed Mosaddeq rose to power
 * shah's power was restored via coup in 1953 and tried to impose economic development and social change though government directives
 * shah's dictatorial and repressive regime deeply offended the emerging middle classes
 * his flaunting of Islamic conventions and neglect of Islamic worship and religious institutions enrage the ayatollahs(religious experts) and alienated mullahs(local prayer leaders)
 * favoritism of shahs showed foreign investors and many big Iranian entrepreneurs with personal connections to highly placed officials angered small-bazaar merchants
 * shah's half-hearted land reforms schemes alienated landowning class and did little to improve conditions of overall poor ||
 * Ideology, Motivation, Goals:
 * return to religious fervor of such anticolonial resistance movements
 * religious purification and rejoining of religion and politics
 * call for a return to the kind of society believed to have existed in the past "golden age" of prophet Muhammad
 * aimed at toppling Western-backed governments
 * rescue Islamic faithful from imperialist Westerners and from corrupt and heretical leaders within the Muslim world
 * wage war against heretics and infidels
 * sought to build lasting state and social order based on the basis of what was conceived to be Islamic precedents
 * revivalist movement aimed at defending and restoring what leaders believed to be true beliefs, traditions, and institutions of Islamic civilization ||
 * Significant Actions & events During Term of Power:
 * radical change --> constitutional and leftist parties allied to revolutionary movement were brutally repressed
 * moderate leaders were replaced by radical religious figures who were eager to obey Khomeini's every command
 * "satanic" influences of US and Western Europe were removed
 * Iran distanced itself from atheistic communist world
 * secular influences in law and government were supplanted by strict Islamic legal codes
 * punishments as amputation of limbs for theft
 * stoning for women caught in adultery
 * veiling = obligatory for all women
 * career prospects for women of educated middle class
 * grand schemes for land reform, religious education, and economic development
 * Iran-Iraq War- personal vendetta for Khomeini, to punish Iraqis and destroy Hussein ||
 * Short-Term effects:
 * Khomeini's planners drew up grand schemes for land reform, religious education, and economic development || Long-Term Effects:
 * isolationism
 * shortages in food
 * anti-Western
 * internal repression
 * misguided and failed development schemes ||


 * Summary:** Much of the Middle East had been subject to European influence, until a surge of nationalism prompted revolutionary action and allowed political freedom. Middle Eastern regions, such as Egypt and Iran faced such issues. Egypt, prior to revolution, was controlled by Turkish khedieves and British overlords. The British were forced to rely heavily on local, estate-owning notables in extending their control into rural areas, and the khedieves were closely associated with the British overlords. Much of the resistance centered around the middle class. One common goal, esp. for Egypt, was to rid itself of such foreign influences. This took placed after revolution was led by the effendi, and the withdrawal of khedieves saw the emergence of mandates and nationalistic actions, such as those conducted by Sa’d Zaghlul led the withdrawal of the British. In Iran, it was a move away from the "satanic" influences of the US and Western Europe, and a return to religious politics, under Ayatollah Khomeini. Iran, like Egypt, wanted to instill social and religious reforms after the withdrawal of European influences. Disdain for the "satanic" influences eventually led Iran to become isolationist towards foreign influences.