From+Hunter-Gatherers+to+Civilization

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Civilization is a group of people transitioning from the hunter-gatherer lifestyle, to a more settled one. These people develop their own methods of communication, agriculture, and cites. They are adapting to their environment, establish themselves with a social structure, and possible stable economic structure. Climate is a factor in the formation of civilization, as it can compel some groups of people to build shelter and clothes.=====

**002 ESPIRIT Chart on Early Civilization**
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003 ESPIRIT Chart on Assyrian Society

 * E || Farming was a central to Assyrian economy, as a result of the Tigris River and water from the Armenian mountains in the north, and the Zagros mountains in the east. As Assyria expanded, more land spurred other economies, such as mining and forestry. Conquering foreign cities brought wealth. Regions conquered by the Assyrian empire were required to pay tribute to the king annually, by means of precious metals, fine cloth, tall straight timber, etc.  ||
 * S || Assyrian civilization began in about 6000 BCE, where an unknown group of immigrants migrated into the area, and 3 millennia later, Semitic immigration followed. The Assyrians lived in small villages, with a complex irrigation system that fueled agriculture. There were few large cities, which served as trade and craft centers. Slaves were also existent in Assyria, but contributed very little to overall economy. Assyrian palaces represented wealth and achievements of the Assyrian empire of the first millennium B.C. Palaces were constructed to illustrate the power of the king and to inspire loyalty and fear in ordinary visitors. Kings would conquer foreign lands and force them to pay tribute; in return, the king would not unleash his army upon them.  ||
 * P || Assyrian government revolved around a monarchy, where the king would only answer to his court. After the king deceased, his son would reign as the new ruler. Local administration was organized around rulers who paid taxes to the king, and provided him with an army of men. Through military campaigns, Assyria extended its borders, in which local rulers were able to continue governing their old regions, under the stipulation that they fulfill their duties to the king. Under Sargon II, Assyria was divided into 70 provinces. Assyrian monarchy, under Zulilu, was succeeded by the emergence of the city-state Ashur. The city state of Ashur was more of an oligarchy, where authority was considered to lie within the city and had three main centers of power: an assembly of elders, hereditary ruler, and an eponym. The ruler presided over this assembly, carrying out their decisions. When Hammurabi conquered Ashur for Babylon, Assyria was reduced to vassal states, dependent on Babylonia. Priesthood became a major power in Assyrian society.  ||
 * I || The Assyrians traded metal with the Anatolians, and later, the Hittites and Hurrians. At the pinnacle of the Assyria Empire, they controlled Egypt, Babylonia, Chaldea, Elam, Media, Persia, Urartu, Phoenicia, and others. In 612 BC, with the sack of Nineveh, Assyria was subjugated by the Babylonians, Medes, Scythians, and Cimmerians. This rule continued until 539 BC. Metals were imported from Anatolia or Armenia, tin from northwestern Iran, and lumber from the West. These trade routes were often hard to maintain, and opening new routes were often the cause and purpose of war. A campaign with Syria and Armenia let to cultural exchange and trade.  ||
 * R || Stone relics of magical spirits were decorated in walls in the palace, which served as a safeguard from evil forces to the king. Assyrians were polytheistic, performing rituals, ceremonies, and erecting temples for gods. They had a negative view on death. Temples were built upon the idea that every god needed a home, and a place where humans could communicate with the god/ goddess. Religious ceremonies included animal sacrifices, ritualistic purification, libations, and other practices.  ||
 * I || Initially, Assyrian literature utilized the cuneiform alphabet, which was adopted from the Babylonians, and written on clay tablets. Gradually, Assyrians shifted from cuneiform, to an Aramaic script written on parchment. Literature focused on multiple subjects, such as legal issues, medicine, and history. In architecture, mud bricks, and sometime stone were used. Houses and buildings were constructed as one story buildings with flat roofs. Temples and palaces were usually more extravagant. Assyrian culture also included sculpting and wall carving, which revealed high skill and craftsmanship. Ancient Assyrians spoke a dialect of the Akkadian language. They also used Sumerian language in literature and liturgy. Art centered around battle scenes, impaling, and represented strength of the king. Assyrian jewelry was found in royal tombs at Nimrud. There is also belief that Assyrians studied astronomy, as revealed by remnants of Nimrud lens. Civil servants were taught Babylonian and Assyrian dialects of the Akkadian language schools for scribes. [[image:http://karenswhimsy.com/public-domain-images/cuneiform-writing/images/cuneiform-writing-1.jpg width="103" height="162" caption="cuneiform tablet"]]  ||
 * T || Mud-brick construction was used to build palaces. Pontoons were floating structures used to support bridge and crossing rivers. The Assyrians created ladders, which troops used to climb up enemy walls. Iron daggers and swords were used by the Assyrian army, and irons tipped battering rams were used to invade walls of enemies. They were among the first to use a system of keys and locks, as well as a sexagesimal system of time keeping. The Assyrians also divided a circle into 360 degrees and invented the concept of longitude and latitude. The Assyrians bred horses.  ||

**004 APPARTS Chart on Hammurabi's Code**
– Who created this? What do we know about the author? What might influence their opinions? || The author of this document is Hammurabi. He is the first king of Babylon, and as the ruler of the Mesopotamian empire, he created his set of laws, known as Hammurabi's Code, to preserve the greater good of the people. These laws were intended to maintain order, and his power influenced his creation of this document. He established this binding set of customs for everyone to follow, and with everyone's adherence, right and wrong could be able to be distinguished. -Religion --> Rid all evil -Unity + equality to the people ||
 * Author
 * Place

-establish government || Questions? Because many city-states of the the Mesopotamian region ruled in city-states, with a king who assumes divine authority, why did Hammurabi stray away (sort of) from these conventions, and establish a basis of laws( different from tyrannical government)?
 * – Where and when was it created - || This document was created around 1800-1750 BCE, during the rule of Hammurabi, who united Mesopotamia under his rule. Hammurabi's Code of Law was discovered on a stone slab in Iran in 1901 C.E. ||
 * Prior Knowledge
 * What do we know about where this was created? What have we learned about this topic? Society that may be relevant?** || Hammurabi's Code was created in Mesopotamia, which was united by Hammurabi. Prior to Hammurabi's unification of Mesopotamia, Babylon was among other Mesopotamian civilizations, such as Assyria and Sumer. These civilizations would operate under their own set of rules, until this set of laws ousted them. Post Hammurabi's control of the region, his law reigned supreme.Hammurabi's code, then, is essentially the supreme law of the land, created with the intention of governing the entire Mesopotamian region, and uniting all other Mesopotamian societies under the control of Hammurabi. As Hammurabi's influence dispersed across the Mesopotamian area, Babylonian cultures, such as their Akkadian language, also swept through the regions.  -Different societies fought for control/ power struggle ||
 * Audience
 * Who is the intended audience? How might they receive this? – quotes to support your claims?** || Hammurabi's Code was directed to the people of Babylon, as well as civilizations of the Mesopotamian region. These people, could be either male or female, and these regulations would bind them to a more civilized way of life. People would probably accept these sets of laws as a government and guidelines to live life. His laws begin with "If a man has..." stating an action, and then a consequence, such as "put to death," which creates a binding set of customs and practices that a person should refrain from doing, or a certain penalty will be afflicted as a result. Women are not exempt from this rule either, if a woman "that has not kept herself chaste, but enters another man's house," she will be subject to death. This set of laws was intended for men, women; people of all classes, although severity ranged between classes.  -place were people gathered/ public place ||
 * Reason for Creation
 * What is the purpose of this document? Read between the lines, support claims with a quote** || The purpose of this document is to create order and structure. Hammurabi's code justifies right and wrong, through the idea of "an eye for an eye," where a person would eventually receive what they have inflicted upon others, whether it is a felony, "a capital one," or charging a man with manslaughter, " and then has not proved it," will result in being "put to death." These laws are basically cause and effect, if you inflict some sort of pain, damage, treachery upon someone, something of the same calibur will be inflicted upon you. Hammurabi's code was intended for males and females, as well as slaves, but also exposed ranking, through severity of punishments. "If a man puts out the eye of a villan or breaks the bones of a villain, he shall pay one maneh of silver," which is a light punishment, where the offender is not maligned, but only has to pay a fine. If the situation was reversed, in the case where a villan strikes the eye of a man, his own eye will be put out.  -improve quality of life ||
 * The Main Idea
 * Support with quotes** || The message being conveyed through this document is, "an eye for a eye" punishment. Basically, if a man maims a man of the same calibur, the same amount of damage will be dealt back to him by the government, i.e. " If a man has put out the eye of a free man, they shall put out his eye." In this instance, the man receives the same amount of damage that he is dealt. If a man of lesser class strikes a man of higher class, the damage inflicted is based on what is seen fit, such as being "beaten with 60 stripes," or other punishments, because these punishments are based on morals and what is believed to be deserved.  -Show laws that go into effect in that specific area ||
 * Significance
 * How does this relate to the big picture? What can it tell us as historians? Relate to ESPIRIT if possible || This set of laws was established as an ideal way of living. They preserve society and maintain order, through its binding customs, which people are expected to follow. Before Hammurabi devised such laws, Mesopotamia was comprised of separate civilizations, which had become united by his rise to power. His rise to power ultimately saw the rise of a single rule and government, where people abide to a set of rules. With Hammurabi's code, people are more united, because of its binding customs that everyone must adhere to. Some of his rule create social differences, such as the severity of punishment, which, people of different classes receive different punishments purely based on the class they belong in, ie. slave, villan, freeman, etc. The fact that the rules are devised by Hammurabi, relate to the political aspect, because all people are expected to follw these rules, and these rules were established by a supreme authority.  -rules + regulation to form justice

005 Chapter 1 Terms: From Hunting and Gathering To Civilizations
From Hunting and Gathering to Civilizations Vocabulary


 * Neolithic Revolution || known as the New Stone age, the invention of agriculture, creation of cities, and other developments ended the Stone Age in much of the world, and altered nature of human existence. During this age, agriculture helped human species move toward a settled spot and focus on political, economic, and religious goals and activities. Agriculture contributed to an increased in sheer number of people during the early Neolithic times, from 6 to 8 million and 100 mil years later, about 100 mil. Population increase was, in part, a result of climate change, which compelled people to search for new and reliable sources of food. The end of the ice age also saw a decrease in large game, and increase in smaller game. This revolution also saw the domestication of animals, by 9000 BCE, where, in the Middle East, pigs, sheep, goats, and cattle were being domesticated for food and clothing. Agriculture led to interest and need for sciences, in order to determine weather and flooding for crops. Pottery also stemmed from the need of storage for grain.  ||
 * Bronze Age || After the introduction of agriculture, came the discovery of metal tools, dating back to 4000 BCE. Copper was the first metal that people learned to work with. By 3000, bronze tool forging became a common practice, and replaced stone tools. Metal working was efficient in agricultural or herding societies, and metal hoes and other tools proved to be effective for farmers. Knowledge of metal working eventually created more change, as artisans also benefited from these tools. Woodworking became more elaborate, with metal replacing stone, bone, and fire in cutting and connecting wood.  ||
 * Catal Huyuk || Neolithic village in southern Turkey founded in about 7000 BCE and was covering 32 acres. Houses were constructed out of mud bricks set in timber frameworks crowded together with few windows. Some houses were adorned with hunting scenes, as well as religious images, of powerful male hunters and mother goddesses devoted to agricultural fertility, which depicted that people in the village had religious responsibilities. The village was self-sufficient, consuming most goods it produced. Some trade took place with hunting people who lived in the vicinity, but the village was more inclined to make peace than profit. By 5500 BCE, important production activities took place, such as toolmakers and jewelers. Large villages, such as Catal Huyuk presided over smaller ones, meaning some families began to specialize in politics and military forces were being organized. Some villages became small cities, where kings that ruled were given divine status.  ||
 * Civilization || Societies with enough economic surpluses to form divisions in labor and a social hierarchy involving significant inequalities. One main difference between civilizations and other societies, involves the emergence of formal political organizations, or states, as opposed to dependence on family or tribal ties. Some civilizations develop writing, such as cuneiform of the Middle East, around 3500 BCE. Writing helps organize more complex political structures because of their ability to send messages and keep records. They can tax more efficiently, make contracts and treaties, and record and improve on weather / past wisdom. People in civilization were often surrounded by nomadic people, and looked down on any society lacking civilization. Some societies, as they gradually became more civilized, develop social classes, caste systems, such as slavery. The separation between rulers and ruled, monarchs and subjects, is also heightened. There is also more inequality between men and women than hunter-gatherer societies. More patriarchal structures emerge in civilization. Men did most of manufacturing and politics, while women played more subordinate roles.  ||
 * Ziggurats || Shrines to Sumerian gods, where complex rituals were carried out. Priests operated these temples and conducted rituals. Sumerians believed in many powerful gods, for the nature on which their agriculture depended on their powers. Prayers and offerings to prevent floods and protect health were central to Sumerian life. Sumerians are polytheists, who see gods in natural objects, such as rivers, trees, etc. They believed in divine punishment of humans through floods, which influenced the Old Testament and Jewish, Christian, and Muslim cultures.  ||
 * City States || Sumerian political structure, where a king reigns with divine authority. The government helped regulate religion and enforce duties; it also provided a court system in the interests of justice. Kings were usually military leaders in times of war, and the function of defense and war, such as leading trained army. Kings and noble class, as well as priesthood, controlled much land, which was worked by slaves.  ||
 * Sumerians || Began in about 3500 BCE, by a people who invaded the Mesopotamian region. They developed their own alphabet, using different pictures to represent different objects. Scribes wrote on clay tablets, with styluses. Sumerian art developed, as statues and painted frescoes filled temples of gods. Sumerian science aided agricultural society, as people sought to learn about the movement of the sun and stars.  ||
 * Hammurabi || Leader of Babylonians and extended empire into other parts of Middle East. He introduced code of laws to "promote the welfare of the people, I, Hammurabi, the devout, god-fearing prince, cause justice to prevail in the land by destroying the wicked and the evil, that the strong might not oppress the weak." Hammurabi's code established rules of procedure for courts of law and regulated property rights and the duties of family members, setting harsh punishment for crimes.  ||
 * Huanghe || This river enabled China to develop isolation, and also allowed it to have some overland trading contact with India and Middle East. Huanghe civilization praised godlike kings of early civilization, beginning with the ancestor of Chinese, P'an Ku. The Chinese recorded their origins, with part-fact, part-fiction history. It is evident that first, an organized state existed that carefully regulated irrigation in the fertile but flood-prone river valley. Second, by 2000 BCE, the Chinese had produced advanced technology and developed elaborate intellectual life. They learned to ride horses, make pottery, used bronze and iron by 1000 BCE, as well as coal. The Chinese invented ideographic symbols, and excelled in astronomy. Initially, the Chinese lived in simple mud houses, due to lack of materials, but by 1500 BCE, a line of kings, called the Shang presided over the Huanghe valley and constructed impressive tombs and valleys  ||
 * Indus River || urban civilization emerged along the Indus, by 2500 BCE, supporting several large cities, such as Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, whose houses had running water. This river gave trading contacts to Mesopotamia, but developed their own distinctive alphabet and artistic forms. Invasions by Indo-Europeans, as well as natural issues, led to influence on India, such as Harappan writing, which has yet to be deciphered. Indo-European migrants brought with them religious and political ideas that took root in the early cities, and remains part of their natural identity.  ||

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The Neolithic Revolution was period of time in which humans transitioned from the hunter-gatherer lifestyle, to a more agricultural and pastoral one. This change allowed human society to become more civilized, in the sense that they were settled in one location, had a stable food supply, and thus, able to create new economic, political, and religious activities. The Neolithic Revolution is credited as the end of hunter-gatherer lifestyle, with agriculture dominating and obliterating the traditional customs of the nomads. River valleys were the first to experience this transition, because their location was key, giving them surplus of food, and fertile soil. As humans became sedentary, separate societies developed as a result of different geographics, leading to a variance of culture. 3000 B.C.E saw the spread of metallurgy of bronze, in an era known as the Bronze Age, from the Middle East to parts of Africa, Asia, and Europe. This innovation in technology revolutionized farming tools, such as hoes, hunting, and warfare. Many Mesopotamian civilizations, such as Catal Huyuk, of 7000 B.C.E, ruled in city-states, where a king commanded absolute power. City-states regulated religion, military, and the economy/ taxes. There was also a judicial system in this political structure. Such cities presided over smaller villages, beginning the evolution of political families and military forces. Civilizations, such as the Sumerians, had expressed particular interest in sciences, esp. astronomy, and also developed cuneiform, a written language. These developments were used in everyday life, i.e., cuneiform was used for accounting. As civilization progressed, gender inequalities became evident, with males assuming most political roles. A majority of societies that sprung up during the Neolithic Age were polytheistic, where they worshipped multiple gods, and erected momentous temples in dedication, such as the Sumerian Ziggurats. In these temples, religious rituals were exercised. Rivers such as the Tigris-Euphrates, Huanghe, and Indus were central to life of early civilizations. These rivers provided early societies with trade, irrigation for crops, and were hubs for interaction with other societies. =====