The+World+Economy

The World Economy



Notes: p. 350-359
**The West's First Outreach: Maritime Power:** MI: World economy was not stationary and intended to gain ground over time. South America, West Indies, and some regions in West Africa were first staked out as dependencies beginning in 16th century and the list later expanded
 * **MI: European merchant fleets seized control of key international trading routes, after the Crusades and efforts of the Mongol empire exposed them to a broader outside world. Initial Spanish and Portuguese efforts was followed by those of Britain, France, and Holland**
 * Crusades brought knowledge of the Islamic world's superior economy and goods that could be imported from Asia
 * Mongol empire sped up exchanges between civilizations of Asia and European interests, and preceding their fall in China, there was a disturbance in the interchange, stifling interactions between China and Europe
 * upper class at this time had become accustomed to products from southeast Asia and India, esp. spices
 * goods were transported to Middle East in Arab ships, brought overland, loaded onto vessels for Mediterranean trade
 * Europeans entered the era, still ignorant of the wider world.
 * Viking adventurers from Scandinavia crossed Atlantic in 10th century to Greenland and North America, dubbing it Vinland, but lost interest after establishing settlements on Greenalnd and Iceland due to an encounter with native warriors.
 * continued belief that the world was flat, leading to fears of voyages
 * 1291 --> onward, Europeans were more consistently expanding
 * accompanied by the fear of strength of Ottoman Empire and lack of gold to pay Asian imports
 * Initial settlements and island groups in south Atlantic served as source of gains
 * first expeditions were limited by small, oar-powered ships used in Mediterreanean trade unable to travel far in oceans
 * New Technology: A Key Power:**
 * MI:In the 15th century, the introduction of new technologies bolstered the European expansion efforts.
 * Europeans developed deep-draft, round-hulled sailing ships for the Atlantic, capable of carrying heavy armaments
 * used and improved compasses
 * map-making and other navigational devices also improved
 * European knowledge of explosives, a Chinese invention, was incorporated into gunnery
 * advancing European metalwork
 * forging of guns and cannons
 * *gave them military advantage over all other civilizations of the world --> sea-based
 * unprecedented ability to kill & intimidate from a distance
 * Portugal and Spain lead the Pack**
 * MI:Portugal and Spain serve as pioneers for exploration in Europe, sponsoring many figures on their voyages. Portugal rulers were attracted by the excitement of discovery, the harm they might cause to the Muslim world, and a desire for wealth.
 * Portuguese prince, **Henry the Navigator** organized a series of expeditions along the African coast and also outward to islands, such as the Azores
 * starting in 1434, the Portuguese began to journey down the African coast, each expedition going farther than before
 * brought back slaves, spices such as pepper, and many stories of gold hoards they had not yet been able to find
 * 15th century: Portuguese sailors journeyed around the **Cape of Good Hope**, attempting to find India, where direct contact would give Europeans easier access to luxury cloths and spices
 * rounded the cape in 1488, but weary sailors forced expedition back before it could reach India
 * Competition: news of Columbus' discovery of America for Spain in 1492, Portugal redoubled its efforts, hoping to stave off new Spanish competition
 * 1498: **Vasco de Gama** reached India with aid of Hindu pilot picked up in east Afirca
 * mistook Indias for Christians, believing that the Hindu temples were churches
 * faced hostility of Muslim merchants, who dominated trade in the region, while they only had to offer crude tools like iron pots
 * returned to Portugal with little spices
 * later trip --> with force, killing and torturing many Indian merchants
 * expedition blown off course, leading to Brazil, where Portugal claimed sovereignty
 * Portugal established forts in African coast and India
 * Mozambique, in east Africa
 * Goa, in India
 * 1514 --> reached islands of Indonesia
 * center of spice production
 * and China
 * 1542 --> Japan
 * launched missionary effort and met some success
 * 14th century: Spanish traveled into Atlantic
 * 1492 --> final Muslim fortress was captured by Spain
 * **Christopher Columbus**, Italian navigator
 * set out under Spanish monarchy, sailing westward route to India, believing the round earth would make his quest possible
 * failed, reaching Americas and mistakenly named inhabitants "Indians"
 * voyage by **Amerigo Vespucci** --> coined the name for the New World
 * 1519 --> Spanish expedition under Ferdinand Magellan, passing southern tip of South America and sailing across the Pacific reaching Indonesian islands in 1521.
 * Northern European Expeditions:**
 * MI: In the 16th century, northern Europe became the lead in exploration, as the newly strong monarchies of France and Britain got into the act and zealous Protestants in Britain and Holland strove to rival Catholic gains.
 * shift in dynamism occured because Spain and Portugal were managing previous gains and because northern Europeans, esp. Dutch and British, were improving and producing better designed ships than Catholic rivals
 * 1588, Britain won sea battle against Spain
 * at this point on, British, Dutch, and French vied dominace of seas
 * aimed northward in Americas, because they couldn't challenge the Spanish and Portuguese
 * 1534 --> French explorers crosssed the Atlantic, reaching Canada
 * 17th century -->various expeditions pressed down from Canada into the Great Lakes regions and MI valley
 * British directed attention to North America beginning in 1497
 * hoped to discover a northwest passage to spice-rich India, but accomplished little beyond exploration of Hudson Bay of Canada in 16th century
 * 17th century --> English colonization of North America
 * Dutch begain expeditions after gaining freedom from Spain
 * Holland became main competitor with Portugal in southeast Asia
 * Dutch sent many sailors to region, ousting Portuguese from Indonesian islands by early 17th century
 * Voyagers from Netherlands explored coast of Australia
 * Netherlands, Britain and France all chartered great trading companies
 * Dutch East India Company
 * given government monopolies of trade in regions designated, but were not rigorously supervised in their own states.
 * had rights to raise armies and coin money
 * semiprivate companies amassed great commercial fortunes acted as independent governments in regions they claimed
 * British East India Company
 * explorers faced many hardships at sea
 * work was tiring and uncertain
 * voyages lasting many months or years
 * diseass such as scurvyy ran rampant
 * Toward a World Economy:**
 * MI:The Columbian Exchange of foods, diseases, and people, new export-import patternsm and emergence of new overseas empires were all brought about by Europe's maritime dominance.
 * extension of international contacts spread disease
 * victims were millions of Native Americans who had not previously been exposed to Afro-Eurasian diseases such as smallpox and measles and had no natural immunities
 * during 16th and 17th centuries, they died in huge numbers
 * In North and South America, over half native pop. would die, some as high as 80%
 * major blow to earlier civilizations in the Americas as well as an opportunity for Europeans to forge a partially new population of their own citizens and slaves imported from Africa
 * New World crops spread rapidly via Western merchants
 * corn and sweet potatoes were taken up widely in China, Mediterranean, and parts of Africa
 * productive crops triggered population increases
 * animal husbandry
 * horses and cattles were introduced in the New World
 * spread of basic products and disease
 * The West's Commercial Outreach**
 * MI: Europeans did not displace all Asian shipping from coastal waters of China and Japan, nor did they completely monopolizethe Indian Ocean
 * Muslim traders remained active along east African coast while few European bases were established
 * commerce mved towards Middle East
 * Western Europe dominated much of oceanic shipping
 * increased Europe's overall profits and disproportionate control by great merchant companies increased European ability to determine framework for international trade
 * east Mediterranean --> Spanish-directed fleet defeated the navy of the Ottoman empire in battle of **Lepanto** in 1571
 * ended muslim rivalry against European naval power
 * sought limited network of secure harbors
 * led by Dpain and Portugal
 * were spread along west coast of Africa, several parts of the Indian subcontinent and islands of southeast Asia by 17th century
 * European controlled ports served as areas for contact with overland traders and provided access to inland goods not directly in the west
 * where there was no direct control, European influence led to formation of specialized Western enclaves in existing cities, where western traders won special legal rights
 * pattern in Ottoman empire,where western merchants set up colonies within Constantinople
 * Russia --> western factors(shipping agents) set up first in Moscow and then in St. Petersburg
 * Imbalances in World Trade:**
 * MI: Most active competition in world trade emerged between European nations themselves.
 * Spain dominated briefly, due to imports of silver from Americas
 * lacked good banking system and could not support a full commercial surge
 * England, France, Holland with merchants that had firmer status, soon pulled in lion's share of profits from world trade
 * Western Europe expanded its manufacturing operations
 * export expensive finished goods
 * guns and cloth
 * in return for unprocessed goods
 * sugar and silver
 * dominant core nations in the new world system supplemented their growing economic prowess by self-serving political parties
 * mercantilism --> urged that a nation-state not import goods from outside its own empire but seel exports as widely as possible in its own ships
 * tariff policies discouraged manufacturing in colonial areas and stimulated homebased manufacturing
 * beyond Europe lay areas that produced low-cost goods
 * precious metals, cash crops such as sugar, spice, and later cotton
 * human labor was a vital item of exchange
 * A System of International Inequality:**
 * The world economic relationships proved highly durable and most areas established as dependents by the 17th century still carry some special burdens in world trade today.
 * core-dependent system
 * most, including Asia and much of Africa was not fuully embraced by it
 * dependent areas, ie. Latin America and slave-supplying parts of Africa, not all people were mixed in poverty
 * African slave traders and princes who taxed the trade might grow rich
 * Latin America--> silver mines and commercial estates required regional merchants and farmers to supply food
 * peasants produced local subsistence with traditonal motives and methods
 * significant minorities were involved in production for world market
 * Most African and Latin American merchants did not fully control their own terms of trade
 * tended to import European-made goods, such as art objects and luxury items
 * coercive labor systems spread
 * due to economies relying on cheap production of unprocessed goods, there was a tendency to build a system of forced labor that would cost little when overall labor was precarious
 * Americas --> given pop. loss to disease
 * led to massive importation of African slaves
 * Native Americans and **mestizos**, people of mixed European and Native blood, systems of estate management developed that demanded large amounts of labor
 * How Much World in the World Economy:**
 * MI: Muh of the world was not yet involved in the world economy. Societies that remained outside the world system did not gain ground as rapidly as the core areas of Europe, due to lack of profit opportunities in international trade. Their technology changed less rapidly, as well.
 * China benefitted from world economy
 * Chinese gov't renounced large scale international trade of its own early in the 15th century
 * avoided involvement with international trade on someone else's terms
 * copied some firearms manufacturing from Europeans, but at low level
 * depended on extensive government regulation
 * backed up by coastal navy to keep European activities in check
 * most limited trade was channeled through Macao
 * managed to avoid trying to keep up with European developments while also avoiding subservience to European merchants
 * world economy played subordinate role in Chinese history through 18th century
 * manufacturing gains led to strong export position
 * Europeans sent much American silver to China to pay for goods they wanted
 * 18th century --> British mission, appealing to the government to open the country to greater trade, was rebuffed
 * imperial court insisted that the Chinese had no need for outside imports
 * European eagarness for Chinese goods, ie. porcelain, was not met with Chinese enthusiasm
 * Westerners compensated with development of own porcelain industry in 18th century, contributing to Industrial Revolution
 * Japan, although initially attracted by Western Expeditions in 16th century, also pulled back, as did Korea.
 * Japanese showed some openess to Christian missions and were fascinated with Western advances in gunnery and shipping
 * artists captured interest in exotic foreigners
 * japanese leaders worried about undue Western influence and impact on internal divisions among warring lords
 * threat of guns to samurai military
 * encouraged local gunmaking industry
 * 17th - 19th century --> Japanese isolationism
 * supressed Christian minority
 * little trade, only with China and small trading concession to Dutch enclave near Nagasaki
 * 16th century --> Mughal empire was interested in Western traders and even encouraged establishment of small port colonies
 * The Expansionist Trend:**
 * portions of southeast Asia that produced for world markets, under dominance of great Western trading companies, were brought into orbit by 17th century
 * western traders were advancing in India as the Mughal empire began to fall apart
 * British and French East India Companiesd staked out increasing roles in internal trade and administration
 * early 18th century --> Britain passed tariffs against the import of cotton cloth made in India as a means of protecting Britains own cotton industry
 * used India as a market for British-processed goodsand source of payments of gold
 * India maintained complex regional economy
 * internal manufacturing and trade
 * manufacturing began to decline
 * Eastern Europe was brought into a growing relationship with the world economy and the west European core
 * growth of cities in the West created growing market for imported grains by 18th century
 * demand was met by east European growers
 * Prussia and Poland
 * particularly maintained by serfs on large estates

002: Early Patterns of Colonization in the Americas and India:

 * **Spain and Portugal in the Americas:**
 * Spanish colonized several West Indian islands soon after Columbus' voyage
 * Hispaniola, Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto Rico
 * began settlement on mainland in 1509, for gold
 * first colony established in Panama, under **Vasco de Balboa**
 * multiple expeditions dispersed in Central America
 * separate expedition from Cuba launched Spanish conquest of the Aztecs in Mexico
 * 1531 --> expedition to Andes, vs Incas
 * spread into Columbia, parts of Andes, and Argentina
 * expansion resulted from violent and treacherous explorers, like
 * **Francisco Pizarro(**1478-1541)
 * came to America in 1502 and settled in Hispaniola
 * joined Balboa's colony in **Panama** and received a cattle ranch
 * learned of wealth of Peru and joined a illiterate soldier and priest, mounting two failed expeditions
 * 1528 --> returned to Spain to gain the support of king and his agreement that he would be governor of the new province
 * along w/ 180 men, Pizarro attacked divided Incan kingdom and captured emperor Atahualpa
 * accepted large ransom and strangled him
 * received revolts in Lima, where he ruled, but was praised by the Spanish king
 * eventually murdered by Incan rebels at a dinner in 1541
 * early colonies in Americas were developed by small bands of gold-hungry Europeans, often loosely controlled by colonial administrations back home.
 * colonial rulers often established only loose controls over native popluations and content to leave esiting rulers in place
 * gradually, more formal administration spread as agricultural settlements and official colonial systems took shape under bureaucrats and sent from Spain and Portugal
 * active missionary efforts sent to Christianized native people ||
 * **The British and French in North America:**
 * French explorations along the St. Lawrence River in Canada led to small colonies around Quebec
 * from 1608 onward, exploration in the MI River, Dutch and English settlers moved into portions of the Atlantic coastal regions early in 17th century
 * France, Britain, Holland --> all three seized and colonized several West Indian islands and involved in slave trade
 * Colonies of European settlers developed in North America
 * English colonies around Atlantic received religious refugees, such as the Calvinists who fled religious tensions in Britain to settle in New England
 * gov't grants of land to major propreitetors, such as **William Penn** led to efforts to recruit settlers
 * New York began as Dutch settlement --> taken by English expedition in 1664
 * Canada:
 * first European settlements were launched by French government under Louis XIV.
 * intial plan involved setting up manorial estates under great lords whose rights were restricted by state
 * French peasants were urged to emigrate, though it was difficult to develop a labor force
 * birth rates were high
 * by 1755, New France had about 55,000 settlers in a peasant society that proved extremely durable
 * dispersed around fortress of Quebec
 * strong organization of Catholic church led to partial replica of French provincial society
 * Britian attacked French strongholds
 * colonial struggle b/w the two powers --> **Seven Years War**
 * France lost its colonies under the **Treaty of Paris**, settling war in 1763
 * France regained West Indian sugar islands along wwith trading posts in Africa, and Britain took control of Canada and the MI basin
 * relations b/w British officials and French-Canadian community remained strained as British settlements developed in eastern Canada and in Ontario
 * flight of many loyalists after 1776 revolution --> more English speakers in Canada
 * Dutch were more attached to Asian colonies
 * British and French leaders valued their West Indian holdings more than North American colonies
 * value of North American products, timbers and furs, were ledd profitable that goods from Caribbean and Latin America
 * North American colonies
 * less economic regulation
 * merchant and manufacturing activities emerged among new Americans
 * American colonies that would become the U.S. had a population of a mere 3 million
 * southern colonies that produced tobacco, sugar, and cotton became important
 * patterns were similar to those of Latin America
 * large estates based on imported slave labor
 * wealthy planter class based on importing luxury products from Western Europe
 * weak formal governments
 * Atlantic colonies in N.A. were backwater among the larger colonial holdings staked out in early modern centuries
 * Europeans arrived, due to religious dissent, ambition, other motives
 * many from British Isles and coloniezed the Atlantic coastal regions
 * reduced native pop. b/c of disease and war
 * society developed in these colonies reflected more west European styles than those of Latin America
 * operated own assemblied
 * provided people w/ political experience
 * Calvinist and Quaker church assemblies gave governing power to groups of elders or wider congregations
 * many colonists had reason to share with some west Europeans a sense of the importance of representative institutions and self-government
 * colonists were avid consmers of political theories written in Europe
 * parlimentary ideas of John Locke
 * wide reading and discussion of Enlightenment materials
 * 18th century American Philosophical Society imitated European scientific institutes
 * hundreds of North Americans contributed to scientific findings to British Royal Society
 * Art remained primitive
 * late 18th century --> American merchants trading with China
 * ships packed medicinal herbs along the Pacific Coast and exchanged them for Chinese artifacts and tea
 * Great Britain tried to place more restraints on this modestly thriving local economy after Seven Years War
 * hoped to win greater tax revenues and guarantee market for British goods and traders
 * effort came too late and helped encourage rebellion in key colonies
 * North America developed merchant class and some stake in manufacturing in a pattern similar to that taking shape in western Europe
 * spread of western values in Atlantic colonies and British and French settlements in Canada was facilitated by modest impact of Native Americans in these settled areas
 * native pop. in area had been less dense than Central America/ Andes region
 * Easily displaced Native Americans from large stretches of territory
 * few Native American groups practiced settled agriculture
 * combined hunting and fishing with slash and burn corn growing
 * ravages of European-imported disease reduced indigenous pop.
 * many forest peoples pushed westward
 * some abandoned agriculture
 * turned to horse-based hunting economy in plains
 * horse brought to Mexico by Spaniards
 * territorial wars distracted Native American groups
 * Europeans did not combine with Native Americans to form new cultural groups, despite interactions
 * unlike Latin America
 * 1700 --> importation of African slaves
 * aided southern colonies
 * practice of slaveholding and interactions distinguished North American life fron European counterpart
 * 18th century --> 23% of pop. of English colonies were of African origin
 * Most settlers maintained key western habits in their new settings
 * family patterns
 * American colonists were able to marry slightly earlier than ordinary western Europeans b/c of greater abundance of land, and had larger families
 * reproduced most features of European-style families
 * primary emphasis on nuclear unit
 * new american had unusual concern for children
 * depended heavily on their work in labor-scarce environment
 * European visitors commented on child-centeredness of American families and the freedom of children to speak up
 * in Europe, new trends --> emphasis on family affection
 * when colonies rebelled against European control in 1776, they moved in the name of Western political ideas and economic goals against dependency the British tried to impose
 * est. gov;t that responded to new Western political theories, implementing key ideas for first time. ||
 * African and Asian Trading Stations:
 * In Africa, Europeans contented themselves with small coastal fortresses
 * negotiated with African kings and merchants but not trying to claim large territories on their own
 * deterred by climate, disease, and nonnavigable rivers from trying to reach into the interior
 * exceptions:
 * Portugal sent expeditions in Angola in search of slaves from initial coastal settlements
 * had more direct/ disruptive impact in this part of southwestern Africa
 * Cape Colony planted by Dutch on Cape of Good Hope in 1652
 * intent was to form another coastal station to supply Dutch ships bound for Asia
 * some **Boers**, Dutch farmers, sent began to to disperse on large farms in a region slightly populated by Africans
 * clashed with local hunting groups, enslaved some
 * 1770 --> expanding Boer settlements conflicted with Bantu farmers
 * opened long battle for control of Southern Africa, enduring until 20th century
 * European colonies in Asia:
 * Spain established administration for Philippines and sent active Catholic missionaries
 * Dutch East India Company administered portions of main islands of present-day Indonesia and also Taiwan
 * Colonizationin Asia entered new phase as British and French began to struggle for control in India
 * began in 17th century, following weakening of the Mughal empire
 * even before their decline after death of emperor **Aurangzeb** in 1707, French and British forts dotted east and west coasts, along with Portuguese Goa
 * Mughal inefficiency increased
 * resultant surge of regional states ruled by Indians
 * growing international rivalry b/w France and Britain
 * British East India Company:
 * negotiation w/ local princes
 * gained station at **Calcutta,** and gave more access to great wealth of Ganges Valley
 * had enormous influence over British gov't and through British navy, excellent communication on ocean routes
 * French rivals were politically less efficient
 * gov't often distracted by European land wars
 * French were more interested in missionary work than British
 * Protestants committed to colonial missions in 19th century
 * French-British rivalry continued through mid-18th century
 * recruited Indian princes and troops as allies
 * warfare erupted in 1744 and during Seven Years War
 * 1756 --> Indian ruler attacked and captured British base at Calcutta
 * English prisoners placed in own jail
 * led to 120 deaths
 * English used this incident "black hole of Calcutta" to rally forces
 * East India Company recaptured Calcutta and seized additional Indian and French territory
 * aided by abundant bribes to many regional princes
 * French power in India was destroyed
 * East India Company took over administration in Bengal region
 * stretched inland from CAlcutta
 * also gained island of Ceylon, Sri Lanka from Dutch
 * late 18th century: British gov't placed unofficial gov;t of East India Company
 * Missionary activity won many converts in Phillipines
 * colonial administrations pressed for economic advantage for home country by opening markets and prompting commerical production of cheap foods and raw materials ||
 * colonial administrations pressed for economic advantage for home country by opening markets and prompting commerical production of cheap foods and raw materials ||