Africa

__** AFRICAN NATIONALISM **__

001: Notes **p666-669** (Beginnings of the liberation struggle in Africa), **p723 - p.727** (Liberation of Nonsettler Africa, The Struggle for the Settler Colonies, and White South Africa) **p. 804 - p.806** (The Apartheid State and its Demise)


 * Beginnings of the Liberation Struggle in Africa:**
 * **MI: Most of Africa had come under European colonial rule in the decades prior to outbreak of WWI . By the end of the 19th century, precolonial missionary efforts had produced small groups of Western-educated Africans in parts of the west and south Central Africa.**
 * most western educated Africans were loyal to British and French overlords during WWI. Using support from Western-educated Africans and traditional rulers, the French and British drew on African possessions for manpower and raw materials throughout war
 * this reliance took a toll on their colonial domination in the long run, in which local rebellions in response to forcible recruitment of soldiers and laborers, was also supplemented by newly colonized African societies
 * African merchants suffered from shipping shortages and decline in demand for crops such as cocoa
 * African villagers infuriated by fact that their crops went to feed armies while they starved
 * Europeans kept few promises of better jobs and public honors, which were made in times of war to gain enlisters
 * led to much post-war unrest
 * particularly true for __French colonies__, where opportunities for political organizzation were severely constricted before, during, and after the war
 * major postwar strikes and riots broke out constantly
 * in __British colonies__, there were also considerable strikes and rebellions
 * 1930s = increased protest b/c of economic slump from Great Depression
 * Western-educated politicians did not work with urban workers/ peasants until the 1940s, but a group emerged and began to organize in the 1920-30s
 * earliest stages = **Marcus Garvey** and **W.E.B Du Bois** had major impact on emerging African nationalist leaders
 * 1920s = much effort to arouse all-Africa loyalties and build pan-African organizations
 * leadership mainly African American and West Indian and delegates from colonized areas in Africa faced very different challenges under colonial overlords
 * aroused anticolonial sentiment amongst Western-educated Africans
 * mid-1920s = nationalists from French and British colonies going separate ways
 * b/c restrictions in colonies, and b/c small but well-educated groups of Africans were represented in the French parliament, French-speaking west Africa concentrated their organizational and ideological efforts in Paris at this time
 * negritude movement nurtured by these exiles did much to combat racial stereotyping that held the Africans in psychological bondage to Europeans
 * writers such as Senegalese poet Leopold **Sedar Senghor**, Leon Damas from French Guiana, and West Indian Aime Cesaire celebrated beauty of black skin and African physique
 * argued that in precolonial Africa, African peoples had built societies where women were freer, old people were better cared for, and attitudes toward sex far healthier than "civilized" West
 * except in settler colonies, Western educated Africans in British territories were given greater opportunities to build political associations within Africa
 * African leaders sought to nurture organizations that linked the emerging nationalists of different British colonies, such as National Congress of British West Africa
 * late 1920s = pan-colony associations giving way to political groupings concerned primarily with issues within individual colonies, such as Sierra :Leone, Gold Coast, Nigeria
 * after British granted representation in colonial advisory councils to Western-educated Africans, emphasis on colony-specific political mobilization became more pronounced
 * growing recognition by some leaders of the need to build mass base
 * 1930s= new generation of leaders, much more vigorous attack on policies of British
 * newspapers, political associations --> reached out to ordinary African villagers and young
 * won mass following
 * Liberation of Nonsettler Africa:**
 * **MI: WWII proved to be even more disruptive to the colonial order imposed on Africa than the first WW.**
 * **forced labor, confiscation of crops, minerals returned, inflation and controlled markets cut down African earnings**
 * African recruits in hundreds of thousands were drawn into conflict and had greater opportunities to use latest European weapons to DESTROY Europeans
 * African servicemen had witnessed British and French defeats in Middle East and Southeast Asia and fought bravely to experience renewed racial discrimination once they returned home
 * supported postwar nationalist campaigns in African colonies of British and French
 * wartime needs of both British and French led to major departures from long-standing colonial policies that restricted industrial development throughout Africa
 * factories were est. to process urgently needed vegetable oils, foods, and minerals in western and south central Africa
 * contributed to migration of African peasants to the towns and sharp spurt in African urban growth
 * inability of many led to moving out to towns to find employment
 * essentially 2 main paths to decolonizations:
 * 1: pioneered by Kwame Nkrumah and followers in British Gold Coast colony--> launched process of decolonization in Africa
 * epitomized more radical sort of African leader that emerged throughout Africa after the war
 * est. wide contacts w/ nationalist leaders in British and French West Africa and civil rights leaders in America prior to his return to Gold Coast in late 1940s
 * returned to a land in ferment
 * restrictions of government controlled marketing boards and their favoritism for British merchants led to widespread, nonviolent protest in coastal cities
 * after police fired on peaceful demonstration of ex-servicemen in 1948, rioting broke out in many towns
 * Western educated leaders were slow to organize dissident groups into sustained mass movement
 * their reluctance arose in part because of fear of losing major political concessions, such as seats on colonial legislative councils, which British had just made
 * Nkrumah resigned his position as chair of dominant political party in Gold Coast and est. his own Convention Peoples Party(CPP)
 * mid-1950s= Nkrumah's mass following and growing stature as a leader who would not be deterred by imprisonment or British threats
 * won repeated concessions from British
 * educated Africans were given more and more representation in legislative bodies and gradually took over administration of the colony
 * British recognition of Nkrumah as prime minister of an independent Ghana in 1957 led to a transfer of power from European colonizers to Western-educated African elite
 * peaceful devolution of power to African nationalists led to independence of British nonsettler colonies in black Africa by the mid-1960s
 * independence in areas of French and Belgian empires in Africa came in different ways
 * French took more conciliatory line in dealing with many peoples they ruled in west Africa
 * ongoing negotiations with such highly westernized leaders as Senegal's Leopold Sedar Senghor and Ivory Coast's Felix Houphouat-Boigny led to reforms and political concessions
 * slow French retreat ensured that moderate African leaders, who were eager to retain French economic and cultural ties, would dominate the nationhood-- sped up after de Gaulle's return to power in 1958
 * 1960 = freedom of all France's west African colonies
 * Repression and Guerilla War: The Struggle for Settler Colonies:**
 * **MI: The pattern of relatively peaceful withdrawal by stages that characterized the stages of decolonization in most of Asia and Africa proved unworkable in most settler colonies. Areas, such as Kenya, Algeria, and Southern Rhodesia, had few openings for nationalist agitation expect that mounted by the politically and economically dominant colonists of European descent. The presence of European settler communities blocked the rise of indigenous nationalist movements and concessions on part of colonial overlords**
 * settlers regarded the colonies to which they emigrated as their permanent homes
 * fought all attempts to turn political control over to the African majority or even grant them civil rights
 * refused all reforms by colonial administrators that required them to give up any of the lands they had occupied, often at the expense of indigenous African peoples
 * unable to have any effect with nonviolent protest tactics or negotiations with British or French officials, many African leaders turned to violent, revolutionary struggles to win their independence
 * first of these erupted in Kenya in 1950s
 * **Jomo Kenyatta** and the leading nationalist party, **Kenya African Union(KAU)**, an underground organization coalesced around a group of more radical leaders
 * formed Land Freedom Army in early 1950s --> radicals mounted campaign of terror and guerilla warfare against British, settlers, and Africans who were considered collaborators
 * the rebel movement had been military defeated by 1956 at cost of thousands of lives
 * British were now at mood to negotiate with the nationalists, despite strong objections from European settlers
 * Kenyatta released from prison, emerged as spokesperson for Africans in Kenya
 * by 1963, a multiracial Kenya had won its independence
 * Kenya's one-party rule, it remained until mid1980s one of the most stable and prosperous of new African states
 * struggle of Arab and Berber peoples of Algeria for independence was longer and more vicious than any in Kenya
 * presence of over a million European settlers in the colony only served to bolster the resolve of French politicians to retain it at all costs
 * after WWII, sporadic rioting grew into sustained guerilla resistance
 * by 1950s= **National Liberation Front(FLN)**- mobilized large segments of the Arab and Berber population of the colony into full scale revolt against French rule and settler dominance
 * high-ranking French army officers came to see the defeat of this movement as a way to restore reputation that had been badly tarnished by recent defeats in Vietnam
 * rebels defeated in field
 * gradually negotiated the independence of Algeria after de Gaulle came into power in 1958
 * Algerian struggle was prolonged and brutalized by **Secret Army Organization(OAS)**, directed against Arabs and Berbers as well as French, who favored independence for the colony
 * strong support from elements in the French military, earlier resistance by the settlers had managed to topple the gov't in Paris in 1958, ending the Fourth Republic
 * early 1960s = OAS coming close to assassinating de Gaulle and overthrowing the Fifth Republic
 * Algerians, in the end, won their independence in 1962, after bitter civil war, the multiracial accommodation worked out in Kenya appeared to be out of the question as far as settlers of Algeria were concerned
 * over 900,000 left within months after it formed
 * Persistence of White Supremacy in South Africa**
 * **MI: In southern Africa, violent revolutions put an end to white settler dominance in Portuguese colonies of Angola and Mozambique in 1975 and in Southern Rhodesia in 1980. Only South Africa retained a minority of white supremacy.**
 * resulted from several factors that distinguished it from other settler colonies
 * white pop. in South Africa, divided b/t Dutch Afrikaners and English speakers, was a good deal larger than that of any other settler societies
 * Afrikaners had no European homeland to fall back to
 * lived in S.A. as long as Europeans had in N. America and considered themselves distinguished from Dutch
 * over centuries, built up a persuasive ideology of white racist supremacy
 * grounded in selected biblical quotations and celebration of their historic struggle to "tame a beautiful but hard land"
 * Afrikaner defeat in Boer War(1899-1902) by British, led to capacity of white minority to maintain its place of dominance in South Africa
 * a sense of guilt, esp. from their treatment of Boer women and children during the war, led the victors to make major concessions to the Afrikaners in postwar decades
 * internal political control, which included turning over the fate of the black African majority to racist supremacist Afrikaners
 * continued subjugation of black Africans became a central aim of the Afrikaner political organizations that emerged in the 1930s-40s, constituting in the **Afrikaner National Party**
 * 1948- emerged as majority party in all-white South African legislature, the National party devoted itself to winning complete independence from Britain and est. lasting white dominance over political, social, and economic life of the new nation
 * rigid system of racial segregation, called apartheid by the Afrikaners, was established after 1948 through the passage of thousands of laws
 * reserved best jobs for whites and defined the sorts of contacts permissible b/t racial groups
 * right to vote and political representation denied to Africans, colored, and Indians
 * South Africa: The Apartheid State and Its Demise:**
 * **MI: Southwest Africa became fully free of South African control only in 1989. By the 1970s, South Africa was by far the largest, most populous, richest, and most strategic area whore most of the population had yet to be liberated from colonial domination.**
 * since 1940s, white settler, eso. Dutch-descended Afrikaners, had solidified internal control of country under the Nationalist Party
 * 1948= white supremacy and white minority rule by passing thousands of laws that comprised of the Apartheid
 * Apartheid was designed not only to ensure white monopoly of political power and economic dominance for white minority, but also to impose a system of extreme segregation on all races of South Africa in all aspects of their lives
 * separate and unequal facilities were est. for different racial groups
 * spatial separation was also organized on larger scale by the creation of numerous **homelands** within South Africa, each designated for the main ethnolinguistic or "tribal" groups within the black African population
 * left black African majority with some of the poorest land in South Africa
 * because homelands were overpopulated and poverty-stricken, white minority was guaranteed a ready supply of cheap black labor to work in their factories and mines and on their farms
 * to maintain racist and inequitable system to apartheid, white minority had to build a police state and expend a large portion of the federal budget on a sophisticated and well-trained military establishment
 * b/c of the land's great mineral wealth, Afrikaner nationalists were able to find the resources to fund their garrison state for decades
 * 1980s = gov't prohibition of all forms of black protest and brutal repression of nonviolent resistance
 * black organizations such as African National Congress were declared illegal
 * African leaders, such as **Walter Sisulu** and **Nelson Mandela** were shipped to maximum security prisons
 * others leader, ie. **Steve Biko**, were murdered while in police custody
 * through spies and informers, the regime tried to capitalize on personal and ethnic divisions within the black majority community
 * favoritism shown to some leaders and groups to keep them from uniting with others in all-out opposition to apartheid
 * through most of 1970s and early 1980s, it appeared the hardening hostility b/t the unyielding white minority and frustrated black majority was building to very violent upheaval
 * international boycott greatly weakened South African economy
 * South African army's costly and futile involvement in wars in neighboring Namibia and Angola seemed to presage never-ending struggles against black liberation movements within the country
 * **F.W. de Klerk** pushed for reforms that began to dismantle the system of apartheid
 * release of key black political prisoners signaled that at last, leaders of white majority were ready to negotiate the future of South African politics and society
 * permission for peaceful mass demonstrations and enfranchisement of all adult South Africans for 1994 elections provided a way out of the dead end in which the nation was trapped under the apartheid
 * well-run and participatory 1994 elections brought power to the African National Congress party, led by Nelson Mandela, who became the first black president of South Africa
 * moderating force in South Africa
 * surrender of Klerk's losing party suggested that a pluralist democracy might well succeed in Africa


 * Nation || Date || Colonial Power || Nature of Movement || Key Leader(s) || Success? ||
 * Algeria || * 1962 || * French captured Algerian in 1830
 * French immigration
 * people of Algeria became full French citizens || * National Liberation Frontabout a million died || * Mohammed Ahmed Bena Bella became pres. of Algeria after the war
 * increasingly autocratic || * autocracy
 * rising food crisis b/c of corrupt gov't
 * economy based on agriculture ||
 * Belgian Congo || * June 30, 1960 || * freestate owned by Leopald
 * terrible conditions and abuse under Leopald || * transition from being freestate by Leopald
 * in-fighting w/in Congo || * Leopald II
 * Patrice Lamumba
 * 1998 = Kabila || * republic gov
 * internal turmoil
 * rebellion movements
 * economy = oil ||
 * Madagascar || * 1960 || * 1896- French
 * recognized French territory || * MDRM revolt- 1946
 * PSD
 * AFKM || * de Gaulle coup
 * Tsiranana became pres.
 * PSD gained most power || * Madagascar = diverse
 * French, Indian, Arab, African
 * adopted World Bank and IMF- led policy of privatization
 * 1/4 of GDP ||
 * Ghana || * March 6,. 1957
 * first subsaharan to gain independence || * British colonization
 * low wages
 * Africans that came back from WWI came back to racism || * boycott of British goods
 * strikes || * Kwane Nkrumah
 * founder of Conventions Peoples Party || * welfare system
 * GDP - $1600/ capita
 * 600 mil in monetary loans ||
 * Guinea ||  ||   ||   ||   ||   ||
 * Kenya || * Dec 12, 1963 || * British missionaries started est. connections inside Kenya in 1880
 * 15 years later, the company added onto by East African protectorate || * movement towards Kenyan independence
 * violent - Secret Mau Mau Society
 * Pan-Africanism || * Jomo Kenyatta - 1952
 * arrested during Mau Mau
 * president and founding father
 * Tom Mboya - || * low economic success
 * country is led by Mwai Kinaki under statutory law
 * aids
 * illicit drugs ||
 * Angola || * 1975 || * Portugal 1483 arrival
 * || * uprising against cotton uprising
 * 1950s- 1961- nationalist movement begins || * Holden Alvaro Roberto started first nationalist movement
 * MPLA || * labor mainly agricultural
 * main exporter of oil and diamonds --> 90% GDP
 * republican gov.
 * many presidential elections
 * 3 branched gov.
 * law system = Portuguese with modification ||
 * South Africa || * May 31, 1910- gained independence from Britain
 * independence from white minority rule = 1994 || * first = Dutch
 * then British w forced colonization
 * Anglo-Boer Wars || * war || * Shaka Zulu - created Zulu village --> constant battle w British
 * Nelson Mandela - involved in ANC --> nationalist movement
 * Paul Kruger - prominent Boer
 * Gandhi
 * Imbeki || * middle income
 * republic
 * 3 branches of gov. ||
 * dependence on foreign aid that can't be repaid by post-independent Africa
 * white owned companies own much of mineral excavation and extraction
 * white owned companies own much of mineral excavation and extraction

Much of Africa had been colonized by colonial governments during the 19th century. This created a relationship in which the colonial overlords dictated the economy and established themselves as the the dominant force in these conquered areas. The colonizers took control of socioeconomic aspects, as well as governed politics. In WWI, colonials powers, such as the British, drew upon some of these African states for troops. In exchange for loyalty, independence, better jobs, and other improvements were promised to the Africans. This was, however, not maintained by the overlords, causing strikes, protests, and uproar. Following WWI, emerged numerous nationalist groups, led by organizers, such as Marcus Garvey and W.E.B Du Bois. The 1920s saw a period of effort to arouse all-Africa loyalties and build pan-African organizations. Movements varied from ones of nonviolent protest to intense violence, ie. guerilla warfare. At this time, there were nationalist movements took many different approaches. In Kenya, for example, settlers regarded the nation as their own territory and refused to move. In response, Jomo Kenyatta took guerilla war tactics towards the British and other settlers in the region, forming the Land Freedom Army. In South Africa, a more nonviolent, but repressive approach was taken against the white supremacist minority, the Apartheid, under Walter Sisulu and Nelson Mandela. In many of the African regions, the Europeans that established their rule viewed the area as their homeland, instituting their own political governments, and taking control of all aspects of the country. The natives took it upon themselves to regain such territories, to have control of land and political freedom, be it by peaceful protest, or guerilla warfare.
 * Summary:**