Civilizations+in+Crisis


 * Civilizations in Crisis: Ottomas, Egypt, and China**

Ottoman Empire and Egypt
As industrialzed European nations were expanding their imperial possessions the Ottoman Empire and Egypt were in decline.

As you read pages 593-604 take notes in the chart below. Be sure to focus on causes of decline, European intervention and reform programs


 * Ottoman Retreat and the Birth of Turkey || Western Intrusions and Crisis: Egypt ||
 * **Causes:**
 * partly a constituent of succession of weak rulers within a political and social order, with the sultan on top
 * resulted in power struggled b/t rival ministers, religious experts, commanders of Janissary corps
 * this competition further diminished effective leadership, weakening its control over the population and resources it claimed to rule
 * sultan was cheated out of taxes by provincial officers with local land-owning classes, the ayans
 * import manufactures from Europe --> deterioration of artisan workers in towns
 * led to urban riots --> guild members and young men's associations assumed leading role
 * Merchants, esp. those of minority religious communities such as Jews and Christians, became more dependent on commercial dealings w/ European counterparts
 * influx of manufactured goods undermining handicraft production
 * European Intervention:**
 * with the Ottomans involved in internal strife and their armies deprived of resources, Ottoman possessions proved alluring for neighboring regions
 * 18th century - Austrian Habsburg --> Ottomans pushed out of Hungary and northern Balkans
 * late 1700s - Russian empire, strengthened by Peter the Great's Westernization, Ottoman's lack of resources and weakness was underscored by attempts to forge alliances with other Christian powers
 * claimed Caucasus and Crimea
 * 1804 - uprising in Serbia
 * repressed after many costly campaigns
 * early 1820s-30- Greek revolts --> Greek regained independence
 * 1867- Serbia gains freedom
 * 1870s - Ottomans nearly driven out of Balkans and most of European provinces of their empire
 * Istanbul repeatedly threatened by Russian armies or those of independent Balkan states
 * Reform Programs:**
 * survival into 20th century --> resulted from divisions b/t European powers, of which feared that others would gain more from total dismemberment of the empire
 * also a result of reforms from within
 * began by sultans and advisors at the top of the imperial system and carried out in stages over 19th century
 * at each stage, reform initiatives increased tensions w/in ruling elite
 * 1727 - introduction of the first printing press
 * **Selim III**(1789-1807) - believed that bolder initiatives were needed if the dynasty and empire were to survive
 * reform efforts to bolster army and navy angered powerful factions w/in bureaucracy
 * Janissary corps, the dominant force in Ottoman military, saw this as direct threat
 * toppled by Janissary revolt in 1807
 * **Madmud II** - 1826 - built small professional army w/ European help and inspired a mutiny of the Janissaries
 * Janissaries slaughtered, along w/ their families and religious allies
 * patterned his reforms after Western precedents
 * est. diplomatic corps on Western lines and exchanged ambassadors w/ European powers
 * Westernization: European military advisors, both navy and army were impoted to supervise the overhaul of Ottoman trainjng, armament, and officers' education
 * **Tanzimat Reforms**(1839-1876)- university education reorganized on Western lines, training in European sciences and mathematics introduced
 * state-run postal and telegraph systems est. in 1830s
 * railways built in 1860s
 * newspapers est. in major towns of the empire
 * extensive legal reforms: 1876 --> constitution based heavily on European prototypes
 * improved the position of minority religious groups
 * artisan positions weakened by 1838 treaty w/ British that removed import taxes and other barriers to foreign trade
 * **Abdul Hamid(1878-1908)** - responded to growing threat from westernized officers and civilians by attempting a return to despotic absolutism
 * nullified the constitution and restricted civil liberties, ie. freedom of press
 * deprived westernized elite groups of the power they had gained in forming imperial parties
 * dissidents/ troublemakers were imprisoned, sometimes tortured or killed
 * advocated Westernization in certain areas
 * military continued to adopt European arms and techniques, under instruction of German advisors
 * railways and telegraph lines built b/t main population centers
 * western style educational institutions grew, judicial reforms continued
 * **Ottoman Society for Union and Progress** in Paris(1889)
 * members of the society, known as Young Turks, were determined to restore the 1876 constitution and resume far-reaching reforms within the empire
 * Clandestine printing presses - turned out tracts denouncing the regime and outlined further steps to be taken to modernize and save empire
 * assassinations attempted, coups plotted
 * **1908 coup:**
 * only a handful of sultans' supporters were willing to die defending the regime
 * a group of officers came to power:
 * restored constitution and press freedoms and promised reforms in education, administration, status of women
 * sultan remained as political figurehead and highest religious authority in Islam
 * their powers were shaken when they lost a round of wars in Balkans and a conflict against Italy over Libya
 * determined to enforce state control to a degree unthinkable to later Ottoman sultans
 * Arab portions of remaining Ottoman Empire was cut short in August 1914 || Causes:
 * European capture of outlying but highly developed Islamic states engendered a sense of crisis among the Islamic faithful in the Middle Eastern heartlands
 * 1798- **Napoleon's** invasion of Egypt
 * motives: destroy British power in Egypt
 * slipped past British blockade, pushing inland, where he met thousands of cavalry motivated to defend the Mamluk regime that ruled Egypt as the vassal of Ottoman sultans
 * Murad was the head of coalition of Mamluk during Napoleon's arrival
 * revealed vulnerability of Muslim core areas to European aggression
 * Napoleon's invasion ended in failure in August 1798 in British sinking of French fleet
 * 1801- **Muhammad Ali** - became ruler of Egypt following French invasion
 * devoted his energies and resources of the land to build an up-to-date European style military force
 * introduced Western-style conscription among Egyptian peasantry, hired French officers to train his troops, imported Western arms, adopted Western military tactics and modes of organization and supply
 * invaded Syria and built a modern war fleet that threatened Istanbul
 * economic improvement: ordered Egyptian peasantry to increase their production of cotton, hemp, indigo, and other crops that were growing demand in industrial Europe
 * efforts to improve Egyptian harbors and extend irrigation works had some success and were used to fuel militaristic endeavors
 * **khedives** - Muhammad Ali's successors after 1867
 * formal rulers of Egypt until they were overthrown by the military coup that brought Abdul Nasser to power in 1952
 * cotton production increased and the landlord class grew, while peasants became hungry
 * vulnerable to sharp fluctuations in demand and price on European markets
 * **Suez Canal-** its completion in 1869 transformed Egypt into one of the most strategic places on Earth
 * vital commercial and military link b/t European powers and their colonial empires in Asia and east Africa
 * ineptitude of khedival regime and Ottoman sultans led to discussion among Muslim intellectuals to ward off growing European menace
 * thinkers, ie. **al-Afghani**(1839-1897) and **Muhammad Abduh(**1849-1905) emphasized the need for Muslims to borrow learning and technology from the West and to revive their earlier capacity to innovate
 * French and British bankers, in their realization of the inability of khedives to pay their loans, urged gov'ts to intervene militarily
 * **Ahmad Orabi**- 1882 - led revolt against khedive regime
 * bombarded coastal batteries
 * British sent expeditionary force ashore, crushing Orabi's rebellion
 * Egypt falls under British control
 * Egyptian efforts to rule the Sudan, beginning in the 1820s were resisted
 * **Khartoum** becomes center of Egyptian administration
 * Egyptian rule was greatly resented, being viewed as corrupt and its taxes placed heavy burdens on peasantry compelled to pay them
 * **Muhammad Achmad** - head of local Sufi brotherhood
 * assumed control
 * was the promised deliverer --> **Mahdi**
 * opposed Egyptian heretics and British infidels
 * promised to purge Islam of what he saw as superstitious beliefs and degrading practices that had built up over the centuries
 * led his followers in a violent assault on Egyptians, believing that they professed a corrupt version of Islam, and on European infidels
 * Mahdi forces gained control of Sudan, but died at the pinnacle of his power
 * **Khalifa Abdallahi** took over
 * built strong, expansive state
 * controlled society, prohibiting alcoholic drink, theft, prostitution, adultery
 * enforced Islamic religious and ritual practices
 * imprisoned/ expelled foreigners
 * lifted ban on slavery
 * 1896- **British General Kitchener** puts an end to threat to European domination in Africa
 * **Battle of Omdurman in 1898** - Mahdist cavalry slaughtered and collapsed
 * British power advances into interior of Africa ||

Read Western Dominance and the Decline of Civilations(IN DEPTH P.596-597)

**The Qing Empire**
As you read 604 to 611 take outline notes on the Rise and Fall of the Qing Empire. Be sure to include Main Ideas for each subtopic and to highlight key terms.
 * The Last Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the Qing Empire**
 * __//MI: The Manchus, under Nurhaci gained control over much of China, adopting the dynastic name Qing, and adopted and made adjustments to previous Chinese political policies.//__
 * local leader, named **Nurhaci**(1599-1626)
 * provided unity among the Manchu tribes
 * combined cavalry of each tribe into fighting units within eight **banner armies**, named after flags that identified each
 * brought much of Manchuria, and non-Manchu peoples under his rule
 * harassed Chinese north of the Great Wall
 * Manchu's began adoption of Chinese ways
 * organization of Manchu bureaucracy along Chinese lines
 * adoption of Chinese court ceremonies
 * Chinese scholar-officials found employment in barbarian state north of Great Wall
 * Manchu, seizing weakness of declining Ming, were able to seize control in China
 * Ming gov't called for Manchus for help to put down rebellion, but found them a greater threat, once they were let past the wall
 * in exploiting political divisions and social unrest of the Ming, the Manchus were able to advance
 * took two years to capture centers of the Ming and rebel resistance in the south and west
 * Manchu regime showed its capabilities:
 * forced submission by nomadic peoples far to the west and compelled tribute from kingdoms such as Vietnam and Burma to the south
 * took dynastic name **Qing**
 * retained much of the political system set in place by the Ming
 * added to court calendar Confucian rituals
 * made it evident that they wanted scholar-officials in office during the Ming to remain --> pardoned those who were instrumental in prolonging resistance to their conquest
 * restored examination systems abolished by the Mongols
 * followed Son of Heaven and divine right
 * patrons of Chinese arts:
 * Confucianism --> **Kangxi**(1661-1722) was significant Confucian scholar
 * Economy and Society in the Early Centuries of Qing Rule:**
 * //__MI: Economy of the Qing dynasty revolved around tenant farming and overseas trade. Women during this period continued to be subordinate and confined to the home, with men dominating marriage and many other aspects outside the home.__//
 * Manchu desire to preserve much of the Chinese political system was reflected in its conservative approach to Chinese society
 * rank and acceptance of hierarchy --> old over young, male over female, scholar-bureaucrat over commoner emphasized in education and imperial edicts
 * extended family remained core unit of social order
 * state grew increasingly suspicious of any forms of social organizations, ie. guilds, secret societies
 * lives of women continued to revolve around the household
 * state upheld dominance of elder men
 * male control enhanced by practice of choosing brides from families slightly lower in social class than the groom
 * girls = loss of their parents' household and needed sizable dowry = high female infanticide, males favored
 * beyond family compound, much of other aspects were dominated by men
 * some women worked in fields and sold produce in local markets
 * women took charge of household, if bore sons and lived long enough
 * elite families saw women with control over other women and younger men
 * Manchus tried to alleviate rural distress and unrest that had risen during the Ming dynasty
 * lowered taxes and labor demands
 * tax-free tenure offered to those willing to resettle abandoned land
 * large sum of imperial budget used to restore dikes, canals, other infrastructure
 * peasants encouraged to plant new crops
 * surplus of workers = less bargaining of tenants with landowners
 * if they objected to the share of crop landlords offered, they would be turned off the land and replaced by those willing to accept stipulations
 * 18th century saw a large prevalence of European traders in China
 * traded exports of tea, porcelain, silk textiles
 * foreign traders gathered in Canton, Chinese merchants, free from restrictions of overseas trade, found lucrative outlets overseas
 * profits from overseas trade allowed for rise of a wealthy group of merchants, the **compradors**, who specialized in import-export trade on China's south coast
 * Rot from Within: Bureaucratic Breakdown and Social Disintegration**
 * //__MI: The Manchu regime, politically, grew increasingly corrupt. In the bureaucracy, namely the examination system, was overwhelmed with corruption, bribery, cheating, etc. China, at this time, lacked proper funds for public works, army, navy because of such corruption.__//
 * bureaucratic foundations of Chinese Empire was rotting from within
 * exam system --> riddled with cheating and favoritism
 * sons of high officials were often ensured a place in bureaucracy
 * money could by a post for sons or brothers
 * impoverish scholars could be paid to take exams for less educated relatives
 * bribery
 * the wealthy saw positions in the bureaucracy as a means of influencing local officials and judges and enhancing family fortunes. Less and less concern was expressed for the effects of bureaucratic decisions on peasantry and urban laborers
 * diversion of revenue from state projects to enrich individual families
 * no funds to maintain armies and fleets
 * public works project funds reduced
 * Shandong peninsula --> by 1850s, neglected dikes broke down over much of the area
 * river flooded hundreds of sq. mi. of cultivated farmland
 * China needed innovative technology and organization that would increase its productivity
 * Barbarians at the Southern Gates: The Opium War and After**:
 * //__MI: Initially, the Europeans traded bullions of silver to the Chinese for their porcelain and other goods, but viewing this as unfair, the Europeans brought in a potent form of opium from India, which put much of China in jeopardy. Opium had profund effects on Chinese economy, causing neglect of many officials because of their addiction, and eventually when its trafficking was forced to stop, Europeans pushed for more access to China and even entrance into Chinese courts.__//
 * Manchu treated the Europeans much like nomads and other peoples they viewed as barbarians
 * misconception: Europeans came from a civilization equally sophisticated and complex as China, only smaller in pop.
 * scientific and industrial revolutions allowed them to compensate for their smaller numbers with better organization and superior technology
 * British exported silks, fine porcelain, tea, and other products with Chinese for large amounts of silver bullion
 * discontent with terms of trade in China, British merchants traded more potent form of opium from the hills of eastern India
 * 19th century --> 4500 chest of opium, 133lbs sold legally or illegally to merchants on south China coast
 * on eve of **Opium War**, nearly 40,000 chests were imported by the Chinese
 * Chinese realized that opium was detrimental to their economy and social order
 * silver flowed out of country in large quantities
 * sources of capital for public works and trade expansion decreased
 * agricultural productivity declined
 * unemployment spread
 * wealthy Chinese squandered large amounts of China's wealth to support opium habits
 * opium dens
 * 1838 --> 1% of China's ~400million people addicted to opium
 * strung out officials neglected their administrative responsibilities, sons of prominent scholar gentry families lost their ambition, laborers and peasants abandoned their work for opium dens
 * Attempts to halt opium trafficking had not been enforced, but in late 1830s, **Lin Zexu** was sent to stamp out the trade:
 * ordered European trading areas to be blockaded, warehouses searched, all opium confiscated and destroyed
 * British saw this as a violation of property rights and free trade and ordered anti-opium campaigns to stop
 * when Lin refused, war broke out
 * Lin exile
 * saw the opening of China to trade and diplomatic changes
 * Hong Kong became center of British commerce
 * treaty of 1842 --> ensured that European nationals had favored access to China's markets and that no protective tariffs were est. by the Chinese
 * forced to accept European ambassadors into Chinese court
 * A Civilization at Risk: Rebellion and Failed Reforms:**
 * __//MI: China's loss in Opium War threatened entire civilization. The defeat and dislocations in south China brought on by growing commercial encroachments of the West spawned several rebellions that swept through much of south China in 1850s-60s and even threatened to overthrow the Qing dynasty//__
 * **Taiping Rebellion** - led by mentally unstable, semi-Christianized prophet **Hong Xiuquan**
 * gained many followers into a formidable army, including Hakka women
 * won a series of victories against Qing forces sent to destroy them
 * spring 1853 - captured a wide swath of territory in south-central China, est. a capital at Nanjing
 * quarreling b/t members of the Taiping forces led to deaths and desertion of the cause
 * ban on opium and Hong's alienation of Europeans led to European rallying behind Qing
 * Taiping offered programs for social reform, land redistribution, liberation of women, and attacked traditional Confucian elite and learning on which claims to authority rested
 * ancestral shrines and tablets smashed
 * simplified script and mass literacy, which would undermine power of scholar-gentry
 * their attack on the scholar-gentry led to their demise
 * provincial leaders enacted China's self-strengthening movement
 * aimed at countering the challenge from the West
 * ended Taiping rebellion
 * last decades of dowry saw the domination of ultraconservative dowager empress Cixi
 * 1898- crushed most serious move toward reform
 * defied Westernizers by re-channeling funds to build modern warships and marble boat in one of the lakes in the imperial garden
 * tried to expel foreigners from China
 * **Boxer Rebellion** - put down by imperialist powers in 1901
 * The Fall of the Qing: The End of a Civilization?**
 * //__MI: In the beginning of the 20th century, many secret societies had worked to toppled the Qing regime, and eventually, officials influenced by Western ideas and powers prevailed.__//
 * with the defeat of Taipings, resistance to Qing stemmed from rival secret societies, such as Triads and the Society of Elders and Brothers
 * inspired numerous local uprisings against the dynasty in late 19th century
 * failed b/c of lack of coordination and sufficient resources
 * by end of 19th century: sons of some of the scholar-gentry and of the merchants in port cities were becoming more and more involved in secret society operations and other attempts to overthrow the regime
 * due to Western education, they desired
 * Western-educated, reformist leaders who would build a strong, nation-state in China like the West
 * **Sun Yat-Sen**- revolutionary who sought to enact social programs to relieve misery of peasants and urban workers
 * drew heavily on West for ideas and organizational models
 * rebels cut their **queues**(braided ponytails) as an act of defiance against Manchu order that all ethnic Chinese had to wear hair in this fashion
 * Feb 1912- last emperor of China, a small boy name **Puyi** was deposed
 * a more powerful provincial lord was asked to establish a republican gov't for China
 * revolution of 1911 toppled Qing dynasty
 * civil service exams given for the last time
 * abandonment of exams signaled the end of a pattern of civilized life the Chinese had nurtured for nearly 2500 years