Early+Latin+America

Early Latin America



001: ESPIRIT on Spanish Colonies in Americas:

 * **E** || **MI: Economy of Spanish colonies in Americas was based on a labor systems of Native Americans, which was provided by the encomienda system, spurring mining, agriculture, herding, and when diseases decimated this labor force, it would be replaced by African slavery.**
 * MI: allowed Spanish to take role in growing trade economy, even though 80% of slaves worked and lived on the land, mining was the essential basis of Spain's rule in W.I.
 * used slaves in labor

new societies emerged from contact with Spaniards nad Portugues and incorporation/ destruction of Native American cultures throughout American continents
 * the lure of the New World
 * empires in Americas formed because they were drawn into world economy due to their supply of silver, gold, new crops, and other goods
 * social mobility and economic gain
 * fabled wealth and opportunities of advancement
 * looted
 * Mancio Serra claim Cuzco in 1533
 * received grants of Indian laborers and a site in the city where, using Inca stonework, he built a home
 * widely respected major, was man of substance and had many servants, slaves, retainers at his disposal
 * expanded domain in name of Spanish crown and spread Christianity
 * plantations established on coerced labor of African slaves
 * Europeans exploited precious metals when thet were discovered
 * in 1492, Isabella ordered Jews to convert or leave
 * 20,000 left, damaging economy
 * Isabella and Ferdinand sponsored Columbus' expedition
 * **encomiendas,** grants of American Indian laborers, provided the framework for relations based on economic dominance to make their distributions to individual Spaniards feasible
 * in Caribbean, agricultural Taino people of islands provided enough surplus labor
 * began encomienda, where the encomendero, the holder of the encomienda was able to use the people workers or to tax them
 * gold hunting, slaving, and European diseases rapidly depopulated the islands
 * few fortified ports
 * Havana
 * San Juan
 * Santo Domingo
 * guarded Spain's commercial lifeline
 * Spanish and Italian merchants imported African slaves to work on sugar plantations on the islands
 * gold hunting given out on one of the islands in 1520s, followed by establishment of ranches, sugar plantations
 * depopulation caused by disease and conquest
 * depop. of laboring pop led to conquest of other islands
 * 30 years later - most indigenous people had been killed/ died
 * importation of African slaves to meet labor demand
 * the crown received 1/5 of all treasure
 * men signed up on share basis
 * those who brought horses or who had special skills might get double shares
 * rewards varied on contracts
 * premiums were paid for special service and valor
 * tendency for leaders to reward friends, relatives, men from their home province than others
 * while Indian pop. in Mexico delined, European livestock increased
 * sheep, cattle, horses
 * Spanish crown limited inheritability of encomiendas
 * colonists sought grants of land rather than Indians as basis of wealth
 * colonial gov't extracted labor and taxes from native people
 * communities were required to send groups of laborers to work on state projects
 * church construction, road building, labor gangs for mining and agriculture
 * forced labor, called **mita** in Peru
 * mobilized thousands of Indians to work in mines and other projects
 * paid a wage but had many abuses in system by local officials
 * by 17th century, many Indians left their villages to avoid labor and tax obligations
 * work for Spanish landowners or to seek employment in cities
 * growth of wagelabor system in which Indians, no longer resident in their villages, worked for wages on Spanish owned mines or in cities
 * Spanish America - agrarian society
 * lived and worked their land
 * mining was essential and basis of Spain's rule in West Indies
 * silver had more prestige than gold
 * 1545-1565 - **Potosi** in upper Peru
 * largest mine of all, produced about 80% of all Peruvian silver
 * **Zacateca**
 * another wealthy mining center, located in Mexico
 * had churches
 * mining labor was provided by variety of workers
 * initially American Indian slaves and encomienda system in 16th century
 * then, draft of labor
 * 1572- mining mita in Peru was providing 13,000 workers a year in Potosi
 * **Huancavelica**- aided American silver production
 * according to Spanish law, all subsoil rights belonged to crown but all mines and processing plants belong to individuals who permitted to extract the silver in return for paying 1/5 of production to gov't
 * mining led to other industries
 * spanish-style farms, raise cattle, sheep, wheat
 * workers had to be fed
 * Peruvian mines - supplied from distant regions with mercury, mules, foods, clothing, coco leaves used to deaden hunger and make work at high altitudes less painful
 * family owned estates - produced grapes, grains, livestock
 * rural estates, haciendas
 * basis of wealth and power for local aristocracy
 * some plantation crops such as sugar and cacao were exported to Europe from Spanish America
 * made up small fraction of value of exports in comparison to silver
 * sheep raising led to development of small textile sweatshops where common cloth was produced, usually by women, in areas like Ecuador, New Spain, Peru
 * America became selfsufficient for basic foods and materials and looked to Europe for luxury items
 * Spain only allowed Spaniards to trade with America and imposed tight restrictions
 * American trade w/ Spain following 16th century passed through city of Seville and port of Cadiz
 * Board of Trade in Seville controlled all commerce with America, registered ships and passengers, kept charts, collected taxes
 * worked in conjunction with merchant guild, or consulado that controlled goods received in return
 * linked to branches in Mexico city and Lima, consulados kept tight control over trade and were able to keep prices high in colonies ||
 * **S** || **MI: Spaniards continued previous styles of living, such as remaining urban and maintaining slaves, but a new nobility emerged, with the conquerers and natives as serfs.**
 * like many Europeans at the time, the Portuguese were highly urban, Americas --> surrounded by natives
 * maintained slaves, heirarchy with encomienda as nobility
 * patriarchial family
 * Iberian - name for Portuguese and Spaniards because the originated from the Iberian peninsula in Europe
 * they mixed with Native Americans and adopted aspects of their culture while introducing religion, technologies, and many aspects of their culture
 * Europeans and NA drew heavily on previous experiences they faced with the problems created by their encounter
 * Portuguese, English, Spanish, Dutch, French all created large landed estates/ plantations worked by coerced laborers
 * worked by African slaves
 * Spanish and Portuguese were heavily urban
 * many peasants lived in small towns and villages
 * pattern was est. in Americas
 * Europeans lived in cities and towns surrounded by rural native pop.
 * many commoners came to Americas to recreate themselves as the new nobility
 * natives would comprise the serf class
 * patriarchial family was readily adopted to Latin America
 * encomiendas, grants of American Indian laborers, provided the framework for relations based on economic dominance
 * tradition of maintaining slaves was continued in the Americas
 * slaves imported from trans-Saharan trade
 * few conquerors were actual soldiers
 * represented all walks of Spanish life
 * women, gentlemen, etc.
 * usually men on the make, hoping to better themselves and serve God by converting the heathen at the same time
 * new nobility and new peasantry: American Indians
 * Mexico/ Peru, old Indian religion and priestly class eliminated
 * traditional Indian nobility remained in place, supported by Spanish authority as middlemen between tax and labor demands of new rulers and majority of pop.
 * enslavement of Indians, except those taken in war, was prohibited by mid16th century in most of Spanish America
 * initially, encomiendas gave holders the ability to use Indians as servants or to tax them
 * commoners had to pay tribute or labor to the state in Incan or Aztec empires
 * 1540's - the crown limited inheritability of encomiendas and prohibited the right to demand certain kinds of labor from the Indians
 * P || MI: Church and state was defined by politics of the Spanish colonies, and politics was centered around bureaucracy.
 * Ferdinand and Isabella sought to rid ethnic diversity
 * loss of income after Jewish departure
 * led to support of Columbus' expedition
 * led to support of Columbus' expedition


 * political centralization of both Portugal and Castile depended on professional bureaucracy
 * comprised of men trained as lawyers and judges
 * religion and church served as a pillar of Iberian politics
 * close links b/t church and state resulted from reconquest of Iberian peninsula from Muslims
 * these links, along with royal nomination of church officials, were brought to new world
 * to rule, Spain created administrative institutions
 * governorship, treasury office, royal court of appeals staffed by professional magistrates
 * Spanish legalism was part of institutional transfer
 * notaries accompanied new expeditions and a body of laws was developed based on those of Spain and augmented by American experience
 * church, represented at first by individual priests, then missionaries, like Dominicans, participated in politics
 * 1530, cathedral was built on Hispaniola, followed by a university
 * immigration from Spain
 * large numbers of Spanish women
 * Spanish and Italian merchants imported African slaves to work on sugar plantations on the islands
 * Spanish empire became great bureaucratic system built on judicial core and staffed to large extent by
 * King ruled through
 * within West Indies, viceroys were created, in 16th century
 * were high ranking nobles who were direct represenatives of the king
 * wielded broad military, legislative, and judicial powers
 * viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru were subdivided into 10 judicial divisions controlled by superior courts, or
 * letrados,** university trained lawyers from Spain * modern division of powers - judicial officers exercised legislative and administrative authority
 * Recopilacion (**1681) codified laws into the basis for gov't in colonies**Council of the Indies** in Spain, which issued the laws and advised him**audiencias** staffed by professional royal magistrates who helped to make law as well as apply it*** Ferdinand and Isabella sought to eliminate ethnic diversity** ||
 * I || MI: Interactions centered around the conquests and invasions of the Spanish and Portuguese, which led to spread of disease and subjugation of native peoples.
 * I || MI: Interactions centered around the conquests and invasions of the Spanish and Portuguese, which led to spread of disease and subjugation of native peoples.

Pedro Cieza de Leon*** conquered Peru** Hernan Cortes*** led expedition of 600 men to coast of Mexico**
 * Spanish and Portuguese merchants shaped traditions that became relevant in American colonies
 * since 1415, Portugal moved down African coast
 * est. trading posts
 * in Atlantic islands, extensive estates were established, leading to a slave trade with Africa and commercial agricultural system based on sugar
 * Spanish and Portuguese conquest:
 * (1492- 1570)
 * era of conquest
 * spurt of human destruction and creation
 * main lines of administration and economy were set out
 * (1570-1700)
 * consolidation and maturity
 * colonial institutions and societies took their definite form
 * Caribbean served Spain as model in actions elsewhere in Americas
 * 1493
 * following Columbus' voyage, a colony on island of Santa Domingo, or Hispaniola was established
 * from there and Spain, expeditions carried out new explorations and conquests
 * 1508 - P.R.
 * 1511- Cuba
 * 1513- settlements existed in Panama and on northern coast of South America
 * disease and conquest annihilated native people of the Caribbean
 * expeditions leaped from island to island
 * 1519-
 * 1519-

Moctezuma II
 * conquered Aztecs and was able to enlist defeated peoples against their overlords
 * used Indian allies, was able to reach Tenochtitlan, Aztec capital, and capture and kill Aztec emperor

Francisco Pizarro **led his men to the conquest of Inca empire * capital of Cuzco fell in 1533**
 * Cortes and followers were forced to flee Aztec capital and retreat towards coast
 * replaced Tenochtitlan with Mexico City
 * 1532-
 * 1540-42
 * Francisco Vazquez de Coronado
 * sought mythical cities of gold, penetrated US as far as Kansas
 * Pedro d Valdivia
 * conquered Araucanians of central Chile and set up city of Santiago in 1541
 * other expeditions penetrated Amazon basin, explored tropical forests of Central and South American
 * by 1570, there were 192 Spanish cities and towns throughout Americas
 * all invaded regions suffered decimation of pop.
 * main islands of Caribbean
 * suffered slaving, mistreatment, disease
 * central Mexico - pop. of 25 million in 1519 to less than 2 million in 1580
 * smallpox, influenza, measles wreaked havoc on American Indian population


 * Spanish decided to build major city, Lima
 * by 1540, most of Peru was under Spanish control ||
 * R || MI: Religion and politics were heavily tied together. It served as a motivation of expedition and exploration, to spread religion.

Ferdinand of Aragon **and** Isabella of Castile*** carried out program of unification to eliminate religious and ethnic diversity in their kingdoms**
 * in Middle Ages, Spanish and Portuguese frontiers had been engulfed with Christianity and Islamic warfare
 * led to emergence of Christian kingdoms
 * mid-15th century -
 * religion played important role in politics
 * as early as 1510, mistreatment and destruction of American Indians led to attempts by clerics and royal administrators to end worst abuses
 * Dominican friar
 * papal grant that awarded West Indies to Castile in return for services in brining those land and peoples into Christian community
 * Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) b/t Castile and Portugal clarified spheres of influences and right of possession of two kingdoms by drawing hypothetical north and south line around the globe and reserving to Portugal the newly discovered lands to the east of the line and to Castile all the lands to the west

Bartholme de Las Casas **(1484-1566), a conquistador turned priest, initiated struggle for justice** ||
 * after fall of last Muslim kingdom, Granada in 1492, Christianity spread across Europe
 * Isabella ordered Jews to convert or leave
 * I || MI: The New World served as a place for spreading new ideas, as well as transferring the old.

Juan Gines de Sepulveda- **published book claiming that conquest was fully justified** ||
 * New World provided opportunities to implant new ideas and forms
 * Spanish cities were usually laid in grid plan or checkered form,
 * town hall, major church, governor's palace in central plaza
 * applied Roman models and rational town planning ideas to new situation
 * conquest came to imply settlement
 * justifications for their conquest
 * argued for need to convert them to Christianity and spread of gospel
 * 1548-
 * T || Technology centered around improving invasion and transporting goods.


 * fleet system
 * heavily armed ships called
 * galleons that were used to carry silver beloning to the crown ||

media type="custom" key="8017180"

 * Summary:** In Sepulveda's treatise "On the Reasons for the Just War among the Indians," it is explicitly stated that the Spanish conquerers were entitled to capture the land of the natives and in doing so, these barbaric peoples would be civilized by Spanish influence. Sepulveda makes the comparison between the Native Americans to the menial positions of women and children in social heirarchy, and that thus, should be able to be conquered. He refers to the Europeans as the "perfect," and that "the perfect should command and rule the imperfect," being the natives. He uses the religion of the Indians as a factor of their subjugation, being that they are perceived to be "servants of the Devil," and must be civilized. Sepulveda argues that the Spanish conquests were more beneficial on behalf of the Indians because of their exposure to the superior Spaniards and their intellect, technology, and religion, all of which were better than the natives. His argument is supported by the writings of Aristotle.

Sepulveda relentlessly attacks the people of Latin America, criticizing and ridiculing every aspect of their lifestyle and their religion. I don't think he is justified to make these assumptions about these people, when he himself "remained in Europe for most of his life." If he hasn't explored the New World, how can he make the assumptions about these people? I just think he is just blindly attacking the natives, and supporting his argument with some ideas from previous expeditions of others, and there is no original thought. He says that the natives are "inferior to Spaniards as infants to adults and women to men." In this, he is arguing with a sexist POV, reinforcing the patriarchial social structure. He compares the inferiority b/t the natives and Spaniards, to men and women. Maybe in his time, this argument was suffice, but in modern times, its ignorant, and and enforcement of sexist morals. I also don't think it makes a suffice argument.

Main Idea: Sepulveda's asserts that the native Americans are more backwards, inferior people, through their cannibalistic sacrifices and that the Spanish conquerers should be applauded for making them more civilized and attempting to assimilate them into Spanish society.

===003: Excerpt from In Defense of the Indians Bartolomé de las Casas (1550): Crocodocs Mark-Up  === media type="custom" key="8033324" While Sepulveda's attitude toward the Native Americans remained largely negative and maligns their image, Casas was more positive and defensive of the Indians. Sepulveda argues that the Indians were a barbarous group, through their cannibalistic religion of sacrificing humans, and must be "civilized." Based on their religion, he refers to the natives as "servants of the Devil," and badmouths their beliefs and culture. He praises the Europeans for their subjugation, civilization, and Catholocization of these people, while maligning the Indian cultures. Casas, on the other hand, believes that the Indians got along fine without Spanish intervention, in that they governed themselves properly, and lived in properly organized states. He dissents with Sepulveda, and dismisses his idea that the natives are in need of conquering based on lack of literature, Catholicism, and Spanish culture. He compares the submission of the natives, to the previous conquering of the Spanish at Roman hands, and the idea that the Spanish, at a certain point, had been considered "barbaric." Possible factors that account for these dissenting views, maybe be the fact that Sepulveda remained in Europe his entire life, and that Casas spent some time venturing into and around the New World. Another factor may be the fact that Sepulveda's ideas were influenced by the "malice or ignorance" of Aristotle's teachings. Sepulveda might have also been overwhelmed with a sense of nationalism, believing that his home country of Spain was the top, superior nation.

Sepulveda purposely makes the Natives sound "bad," to justify the Spanish colonization. Casas, on the otherhand, defends the Indians, stating that because they are barbaric, doesn't mean that they can't govern themselves.

004: Notes on Brazil:
>> Dutch seized a portion of northern Brazil >> other parts of Europe developed sugar plantations, leading to decline of overall sugar prices B**ourbon Reforms:** Pombal and Brazil:
 * Brazil: The First Plantation Colony:**
 * **MI: Under the Portuguese, Brazil was the first plantation colony that developed in the New World, developing from sugar cultivation and gold mining with Native and African labor in the 18th century.** Sugar plantations
 * Brazil was discovered by Pedro Alvares Cabral, a Portuguese exploring on his way to India. For 30 years, Brazil was ignored
 * initially used for dyewood trees and granted licenses for exploitation of dyewood
 * French threat to encroach on Brazilian territory led to military response on behalf of Portuguese
 * 1532 - coast was cleared of rivals and new system instilled
 * **Capitaincies**: awarded to nobles that combined broad, seemingly feudal powers with a strong desire for commercial development
 * towns were established in a few places, and sugar plantations emerged, first utilizing Native American labor, then African slave labor
 * 1549: Portuguese king sent governor general and other officials to create royal capital at Salvador, and Jesuit missionaries arrived
 * 1600: indigenous resistance broken by military action, missionary activity, or epidemic disease
 * string of settlements extended along coast, around port cities, like Salvador and Rio de Janeiro
 * 150 sugar plantations, worked by African slaves
 * 100,000 inhabitants, 30,000 Europeans, 15,000 black slaves, rest were mixed
 * Sugar and Slavery:**
 * **MI: Brazil emerged as the world's leading sugar exporter, causing the spurring of a new hierarchy and capital.**
 * slaves provided source of labor, and were easily replaced
 * **sugar cane was produced in the field**
 * cut and pressed into large mills; juices were heated to crystalize into sugar
 * agriculture and industry combination required large amounts of capital for machinery and labor
 * slave did most of work
 * by end of 17th century --> 7000 slaves imported a year from Africa
 * 150,000 of pop. in Brazil comprised of slaves
 * became first great plantation colony
 * reflected plantation and slave origins
 * white planter families became aristocracy linked by marriage to resident merchants and to the few Portuguese bureaucrats and officials and dominated local institutions
 * bottom of society: slaves, distinguished by color and status as property
 * population was composed of people of mixed origins
 * miscegenation of whites, Indians, Africans,
 * served as artisans, small farmers, herders, and free laborers
 * Portugal created bureaucratic structure that integrated this colony within imperial system
 * governor ruled from Salvador, but governors in each captaincy often acted independently and reported directly to overseas council in Lisbon
 * Missionary orders became important in Brazil, esp. Jesuits
 * Brazil became Portugal's most important colony
 * intellectual life was extension of Portugal
 * Brazilians seeking higher education and gov't offices or hoping to publish works had to return to Portugal
 * Brazil's Age of Gold:**
 * **MI: The discovery of gold in Brazil impacted Brazilian economy and led to a stimulation of new markets, such as ranching and farming.**
 * worldwide competition --> sugar production from Dutch, English, and French plantations colonies est. in 1680s
 * Paulistas, backwoodsmen from Sao Paulo captured Indians, made expeditions into continent, and made gold strikes in 1695 in **Mina Gerais** --> new boom
 * Gold rush began and people abandoned towns and plantations
 * 5000 immigrants/ year to Portugal
 * slaves labored in mines --> 1775: 150,000 slaves out of total pop. of 300,000
 * wild mining camps and wide open society led to creation of network of towns, such as administrative center of Ouro Preto
 * gov't anxious to control newfound wealth, imposed heavy hand to collect taxes and rein in unruly pop.
 * b/t 1735 and 1760, gold production reached its height, and Brazil became greatest source of gold in western world
 * gold and diamond discovery opened interior to settlement, and had disastrous effects on indigenous population and expansion of slavery
 * disruption of coastal agriculture because of gold strikes was overcome by gov't control of slave trade and exports of sugar and tobacco
 * **Rio de Janeiro**, the port closest to the mines, grew in size and importance
 * became capital of colony in 1763
 * Gold allowed Portugal to continue economic policies that proved to be detrimental
 * with access to gold, Portugal could buy manufactured goods necessary for it and its colonies
 * much of gold went to England for manufactured goods, but became dependent on England when supply decreased
 * Multiracial Societies:**
 * **MI: The mixture of whites, Africans, and Indians created a basis of multiracial societies in which hierarchies of color, status, and occupation all operated. By the 18th century, the castas, people of mixed origin, began to increase rapidly and had become a major segment of pop.**
 * 3 major groups: Indians, Europeans, Africans, all brought together under diff. conditions:
 * Europeans as the conquerers and voluntary immigrants
 * Indians as conquered peoples
 * Africans as slaves
 * this situation created hierarchies of masters and servants, Christians and pagans, that reflected relationships of power and colonial condition
 * central Mexico, where Indian nobility existed, aspects of preconquest social organization were maintained because they served ends of Spanish government
 * Society of Castas:**
 * **MI: The original Spanish conception of society, drawn from medieval experience, was altered by miscegenation, involving sexual exploitation of Indian women, occasional alliances formed by concubines and female servants, marriages with indigenous women, leading to the formation of mestizos.**
 * Mestizos, mixed blood, were considered products of illegitimacy, but still maintained higher status than Indians
 * able to operate in both worlds, not fully accepted as equals to Spanish, but allowed to live to standards of Spanish society
 * Throughout Spanish Indies, European categories of noble, priest, and commoner continued, as hierarchies did with wealth and occupation
 * American realities created new distinctions in which race and place of birth played crucial role. This was the sociedad de castas, based on racial origins, in which Europeans or whites were at the top, black slaves or NA at bottom, and many mixes filled intermediate categories
 * Initially, all whites shared privileged status of Spaniards, regardless of continent of birth, but over time, distinctions developed b/t **peninsulares**, or those actually born in Spain, or **Creoles**, those born in the New World.
 * legitimacy constantly suspected due to many mestizos present
 * hierarchy of race was intersected with Iberian distinctions based on gender, age, and class
 * father had legal authority over children until they were 25
 * women were in subordinate position, could not serve in gov. and were expected to assume duties of motherhood and household
 * after marriage, women went under authority of huabands
 * had full inheritance rights
 * 18th Century Reforms:**
 * **MI: Increasing attacks on Iberian empires by foreign rivals led to Bourbon reforms in Spanish America and the reforms of Pombal in Brazil. These changes strengthened the two empires, but also generated colonial unrest that eventually led to movements for independence**
 * In Spain and its colonies, small clubs and associations, calling themselves **amigos del pais**, or friends of the country, met in many cities to discuss and plan all kinds of reforms
 * for material benefits and improvements
 * In Portugal, foreign influences and ideas created a group of progressive thinkers and bureaucrats open to new ideas in economy, education, and philosophy
 * resulted from changing European economic condition and demographic realities and new ideas
 * expansion of pop. and economy in Europe and increased demands for American products, along with a series of wars in 18th century gave American colonies new importance
 * Shifting Balance of Politics and Trade:**
 * **MI: By the 18th century, it became clear that the Spanish colonial system had become outmoded and that Spain's exclusive hold on Indies was no longer secure. Beset by foreign wars, increasing debt, declining pop., and internal revolts, a weakened Spain was threatened by France, England, Holland**.
 * Since 16th century, French, Dutch, and English ship captains had combined contraband trade with raiding Spanish Empire, and although Spain's European rivals could not seize Mexico or Peru, the sparsely populated islands and coasts of Caribbean became likely targets
 * English captured Jamaica in 1654
 * French took control of Hispaniola in 1697
 * turned to sugar production and creation of slave and plantation colonies
 * failure of Spanish mercantile and political system
 * annual fleets became irregular
 * silver payments from America declines and most goods shipped to the West Indies and even ships that carried them were non-Spanish in origin
 * colonies became more self-sufficient
 * had basic commodities
 * central gov't weakened, local aristocrats in colonies exercised increasing control over the economy, and gov;t of their regions, often at the expense of the Native American and lower class populations
 * graft and corruption ran rampant in branches of government
 * **War of the Spanish Succession** (1702-1713) ensued following death of Charles II in 1701, and resulted in the **Treaty of Utrecht**(1713) recognizing a branch of the Bourbon family as rulers of Spain
 * price was some commercial concessions that allowed French merchants to operate in Seville and permitted England to trade slaves in Spanish America
 * **MI: Bourbon dynasty in Spain launched a series of reforms intending to strengthen state and its economy.**
 * In this age of "Enlightened despotism," Spanish Bourbons, esp Charles III (1759-1788), were moved by economic nationalism and a desire for strong centralized gov't to institute economic, administrative, and military reforms in Spain and its empire
 * goal: to revive Spain within the framework of its traditional society, and their aim was to make govt more effective, more powerful, and better able to direct the economy
 * certain groups/ institutions targeted b/c they opposed these measures
 * Jesuit order
 * French bureaucratic models were introduced
 * system of taxation tightened and navy was reformed and new ships built
 * convoy fleet system abandoned and in 1778, new ports were opened in Spain and America, for the West Indies trade
 * During Bourbon reforms, gov't took active role in economy
 * state monopolies were est. for items and gov't considered essential, such as tobacco and gunpowder
 * MI: Bourbon reforms in Spain and Spanish America were paralleled in Portuguese world during administration of Marquis of Pombal(1755-1776), Portugal's authoritarian prime minister. He observed benefits of mercantilism firsthand, and hoped to use same techniques, along with intervention in economy, to break England's hold on Portuguese economy, esp. flow of Brazilian gold from Portugal to England.
 * suppressed any group or institution that stood in the way of royal power and his programs
 * disdain towards Jesuits b/c of their allegiance to Rome and semi-independent control of large areas in Brazil
 * 1759 - expelled Jesuits from Portuguese Empire
 * fiscal reforms aimed at eliminating contraband, gold smuggling, and tax evasion
 * monopoly companies were formed to stimulate agriculture in older plantation zones and were given the right to import large numbers of slaves, and new crops were introduced
 * abolished slavery in Portugal to stop import of slaves there and to ensure steady supply to Brazil
 * b/c Brazil was vast and needed to be occupied and defended, he removed Indians from missionary control in the Amazon and encouraged whites to marry them
 * immigrant couples from Portugal and Azores were sent to colonize the Amazon basin and southern plains of Brazil
 * Pombal hoped to revitalize the colonies as a way of strengthening the mother country
 * Reforms, Reactions, and Revolts:**
 * **MI: By mid-18th century, the American colonies of Spain and Portugal, like the rest of the world, were experiencing rapid growth in pop. and productive capacity. By the end of the century, Spanish America had a pop. of almost 13 mil.**
 * In Brazil, pop reached over 2 mil by end of century. This overall increase resulted from declining mortality rates, increasing fertility rates, increasing immigration from Europe, and thriving slave trade
 * increasing demand for American products
 * reformist policies, tighter tax collection, and presence of more activist gov. in both Spanish America and Brzil disrupted old patterns of power and influence, raised expectations, and provoked colonial reactions.
 * urban riots, tax revolts, Indian uprisings
 * New Granada: complaints against gov. control of tobacco and liquor consumption, and rising taxes and new taxes
 * **Comunero Revolt:** 1781
 * Peru: revolt:
 * Indian uprising under Tupac Amaru, a mestizo with a direct link to the family of Incas, Amaru led a revolt against bad government.
 * for almost 3 years, the whole vieroyalty was thrown into turmoil while more that 70,000 Indians, mestizos, and even Creoles joined the rebellion against the worst abuses of colonial regime
 * This kind of social upheaval was absent in Brazil, where a govt attempt to collect back taxes in the mining region led in 1788 to a plot against Portuguese control
 * conspiracy was discovered, and Tiradentes, the officer, was hanged