Post-Classical+Period

005: 5 Pillars of Islam
Sources: 1.) [] 2.) []


 * **Iman (Faith)**
 * Declaration of faith is called Shahada
 * Islamic proclamation that "There is no true God except Allah and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah."
 * is the confession that Allah is the one and only true God, that he is worthy of worship, etc.
 * Muhammad is the true and greatest prophet of Allah
 * need to regonized Muhammad as the Prophet of God
 * perceived that through Muhammad, Allah conveyed the last and final revelation
 * **Salat (Prayer)**
 * involves confession of sins, beginning with the purification of the body, ending with purification of the soul
 * Prayers are performed 5 times a day
 * must have intention to pray
 * must wear appropriate clothing
 * must face ka'ba
 * first prayer begins at dawn
 * last is at sunset
 * prayers are in arabic
 * prayers include : Fajr, Dhuhu, Asr, Maghrib, Isha
 * Maghri- sunset prayer
 * Isha- after sunset prayer
 * Shurooq - prayer said after the Fajr
 * **Saum (fasting)**
 * during the month of Ramadan- month of fasting in Islam
 * act of worship where faithful follower denies his own needs and seeks Allah
 * Fasting:
 * no drinking
 * no eating
 * no sexual relations
 * none of the above during daylight hours for the entire month of Ramadan
 * sick, elderly, or on a journey are able to make up an equal number of days later in the year if they are healthy and able
 * children begin to fast at puberty
 * fasting is a method of self-purification and self- restraint
 * **Zakat (Alms-giving or charity)**
 * means "purification" and "growth"
 * our possessions are purified by setting aside a proportion for those in need and for the society in general
 * Zakah is calculated individually
 * annual payment of fortieth of one's capital, excluding items such as primary residence, car, and professional tools
 * New converts, those in debt, and poor do not need to participate in zakat
 * **Hajj (Pilgrimage)**
 * pilgrimage to Makkah(the hajj) is an obligation only for those physically and financially fit to do so
 * annual hajj begins in the twelfth month of the Islamic year
 * pilgrims wear simple clothes
 * clothes that strip away distinctions in class, culture, so all are equal before God
 * Day of Judgment, all stand equal before Allah for that day
 * involves financial sacrifice and is an act of worship
 * should visit at least once in a Muslim's lifetime

002: Summary of Postclassical Period, pg. 120- 125
Following the fall of classical civilizations, the period 500- 1450 saw a rise and spread of religion. Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam spread from their points of origination, as a result of missionary efforts. Religions occassionally benefited from government sponsorship and military pressure. People found religion particularly alluring, because the collapse of the classical empires saw economic decline and increasing disorder. Religion would provide security, reassurance, and guidance. Spread of religion generated mutual intolerance, as well as constructive intolerance. It developed new loyalties that would compete with other values, such as politcal values, and as a result, emphasis on politcal issues shifted to those of religion. Religion had different interpretations among different people, and the number of devoted religious communities and leaders increased, ie. monastic movements in Buddhism and Christianity. Monetary contributions to religious institutions frequently interfered with tax payments to government. Rise of religion affected the status of women, as well. Initially, the major religions insisted that women were spiritually on par with men. Buddhist leaders argued from woman's importance, while Islam established property ownership for women. Christianity saw the inclusion of women in leadership roles. As women's roles saw an improvement, there was also a decline. Women's status, as a result of trade and urban prosperity, deteriorated, as they began to be regarded as ornaments. This spread took place in China, India, with the practice of sati, and Middle East, where women were secluded from public life.

The postclassical period also experienced inprovements in commerce, and trade, leading to innovations and spread of technology. International trade advanced beyond the Silk Road, with the Indian Ocean and Mediterranean Sea serving as hubs of trade, linking northwestern Europe, west Africa, Japan, and other regions. Decline of empires compelled ambitious people to search for more areas. Their attention shifted to different regions as a result of the fall of empires. Trade encouraged the improvement of ships and navigational devices, for example, the compass invented by the Chinese, and the improved ship design of the Middle East. Frequent trade established a network amongst the most prosperous societies of the period, being Asia, Africa, and Europe. China, India, Middle East, north Africa, and Byzantine traded various types of manufactured goods for silks, porcelains, and other goods. North-south trade routes connected these areas to other regions, such as sub-saharan Africa, Japan, and others, providing processed goods, such as gold and slaves. Trade also facilitated spread of technology. When Islamic troops captured papermarkets in western China, innovations such as paper, printing, and explosives spread to Middle East and Europe. this spread was initially slow, but more swift than that of the previous period. Trade also accelerated the spread of plagues, such as the "Black Death." Religions clashed, as well, due to trade. As a result, older practices, such as the veiling of women was revived. Merchant class expanded due to trade, affecting social structure only moderately, but landlords remained dominant in society. Trade contributed to the deterioration of women's status. While religion boosted the image of women, trade undermined that shift, reverted women's treatment to a more ornamental one.

003: Pre-Islamic Arabian World ESPIRIT



 * E || * **bedouin**/ nomadic tribes
 * camel and goat herding
 * operated in clans and fought over pasturelands and watering areas
 * vital to proliferation of herding and farming
 * Towns and agriculture flourished on a limited scale:
 * because land was mostly desert oasis
 * only coastal regions on far south had extensive agriculture, sizeable cities, and regional kingdoms
 * **Mecca:**
 * served as a center of trade
 * **Ka'ba** attracted many pilgrims and customers to Meccan bazaars
 * **Medina:**
 * another center of trade
 * also an oasis
 * place of farming and agriculture
 * supported staple crops;
 * wheat, date palms
 * date palms were traded w/ other bedouins and fed to camels ||
 * S || * Clans
 * **bedouin** herders lived in kin-related clan groups
 * clustered in tribal groupings
 * only congregated in times of war/ crisis
 * struggle for subsistence resulted in strong dependence on loyalty to one's clan
 * survival depended on cooperation with and support from kin
 * Slave families
 * below the warrior class
 * captured from rival clans in war
 * served the **shayks**/ clan
 * Interclan Rivalries
 * often disputed over pasturelands and watering places
 * encroaching onto another clan's pasturing areas would result in death
 * one's honor depended on one's respect for the clan
 * disrespect of one's clan would result in dispute/ war
 * all men engaged in these fights, equipped with spears or bow and arrows
 * Women's roles:
 * enjoyed great freedom and high status
 * key economic roles
 * milking camels
 * weaving clothes
 * tending to children
 * tribal descent was traced from the mother
 * man was required to pay a bride-price to his prospective wife's family
 * women were not secluded
 * did not have to wear veil
 * WERE NOT EQUAL TO MEN!
 * could not gain glory as warriors
 * their status depended on customs of individual clans and tribes, rather than on legal codes
 * customary practices of property control, inheritance, and divorce heavily favored men
 * Male = polygamy
 * Female= monogamy ||
 * P || * **Shaykhs:**
 * elevted by councils of elder advisors
 * leaders of the tribes of clans
 * almost always men with:
 * large herds
 * several wives
 * many children
 * numerous retainers
 * enforced by bands of warrios
 * commanded slave families
 * led wars/ battles ||
 * I || * 7th century- 17th century:
 * Islamic civilization provided key links and channels for exchange among what had been the main civilized centers of classical era in the Eastern hemisphere
 * Muslim merchants, cooperating w/ Jewish, Armenia, India, and other regional counterparts, became key links in trade b/t civilizations from the western Mediterranean to South China Sea
 * main agents for transfer of food crops
 * Interclan violence over pasturelands and watering areas
 * **Mecca:**
 * attracted many pilgrims and worshippers to **Ka'ba** and bazaar
 * center of trade
 * **Medina:**
 * oases: ideal place to cultivate staple crops, ie. wheat and date palms
 * 2nd center of trade ||
 * R || * **Bedouin** religion:
 * blend of animism and polytheism
 * **Quraysh**
 * recognized Allah as a supreme god
 * seldom prayed or sacrificed to Allah, because they emphasized less abstract spirits who seemed to be more relevant to their daily lives
 * ie. moon god Hubal
 * Spirits and gods tend to be associated with night
 * worship of nature spirits focused on sacred caves, pure springs, and groves of trees
 * Religion had little to do with ethics
 * **Mecca:**
 * site of **Ka'ba**, most revered religious shrine
 * attracted pilgrims and customers to Mecca's bazaars
 * obligatory truce betweeen interclan feuds during a certain time of year
 * place of trade, gossip exchange
 * **Medina:**
 * Home of the prophet **Muhammad** ||
 * I || * Poetry:
 * composed and transmitted orally --> no written language
 * clan and tribal bards narrated poems that told of their kinsmens's heroics in war and the clan's great deeds
 * some poets were said to have magical powers, others possessed by demons
 * poems provide a vision of life and society in pre-Islamic Arabia
 * stories tell about:
 * lovers spurned
 * passion consummated
 * war and vendettas
 * loyalty and generosity
 * herded camels and goat ||
 * T || * Poetry
 * Camel and goat herding ||
 * T || * Poetry
 * Camel and goat herding ||

004: 5 Pillars of Islam:
5 Pillars of Islam Mark-Up:



Summary: The Five Pillars of Islam are vital in the life of a Muslim, providing guidance and spiritual alliance to Allah. The first pillar of Islam, is Shahadah, the Islamic Creed. This focuses on the declaration of Allah as the Muhammad as his prophet. The relationship of a Muslim and God, is as a witness and servant of God. The second pillar revolves around the idea of daily prayers, or Salah. A Muslim must pray five times a day; between dawn and sunrise, noon to mid-afternoon, between midafternoon and just before sunset, at sunset, and after twilight until nighttime.In praying, one is purifying his/ her spirit. Islam's third pillar is the sawn, or fasting. Only adults are obligated to participate, by children voluntarily get involved, as well. It begins on the first day of Ramadan, and is intended to unite a person with God, and bring him closer to this divine force, through self-restraint. The fourth pillar of Islam, is zakah, or charity. This pillar requires that one must give a 2.5% of their wealth/ possessions beyond basic needs. In doing so, a Muslim is purifying themselves of greed by giving wealth to others. It also cleanses the soul, in giving what is beyond the needs, and helping those who are needy and less fortunate. The final pillar is the Hajj, or pilgrimage to Makkah. The hajj rites reenact the trials and sacrifices of Prophet Abraham, his wife Hajar, and their son Isma'il over 4,000 years. At the mosque, Ka'ba, all Muslims are dressed in white robes, which symbolize the equality of all in the eyes of Allah. This journey is only required for those who are physically and financially able, and is a reminder of the gathering of all humans before God at the Judgement Day.

The Five Pillars are guidelines for Muslims. They serve as a routine for worshippers, such as the Salah, which creates the rigid habit of daily prayers, five times a day. These prayers unite the Muslim with God and helps develop spiritual unity with the worshipper and Allah. These guidelines also create a sense of community, through the prayers, fasts, charities, and pilgrimmages. Muslims pray together for spiritual unity with Allah. They follow these guidelines in their worship of God. A sense of community is also created through fasts, as they join together on the first ay of Ramadan, and fast, demonstrating self-restraint and facing temptation. Charities exemplifies the idea of community, because Muslims are united as they cleanse their spirits, and donate to those who are in need. Finally, the pilgrimages create a sense of equality amongst all Muslims. At the Ka'ba, all are adorned with a white robe, which there is no distinction between class, wealth, gender, etc.

005: Documentary on Islam: Notes:
· Muhammad was born in 570 ad in arabian peninsula · Sent off to live with bedouin o Viewed people as lost of culture o When muhammad’s parents died, he was orphaned and adopted by uncle § Developed sense of generosity · Pre-islamic- largely oral culture, expressed poetry orally o Important people were poets § Sang glory and told story of tribe § Poetry bound bedouins together · Celebrated victories, war, tribal warfare · Allegiance to family and tribe o No one could endure without family protection § Protected wells à water was precious o Each clan had own gods o Worshipped nature-oriented spirits, trees, rocks, springs § Ka’ba- sanctuary · Built by Abraham centuries before · Provided place of peace · Bedouins submitted to truece · Facilitated trading, could not fight while trading and buying · Major center of trade, arabian incense, chinese silks, egyptian linens · Rich mixture of cultures à local religiouns mixed · Muhammad, at the age of 25, his tenents caught the eyes of a Adeejah, who married him. (caravan) · Had much contact with merchants passing through Arabian peninsula · Able to communicated with a variety of people. · Al-Ahmin, the trusted one o Helped move rock · In a cave above mecca, muhammad saw an angel, Jibreel, who gave him a revelation o More revelations months to come o Was to bear one message § That there is only one God o One god= no more tribal divisions § Social justice message à new way of life, equality · Universal appeal · Quaran was revealed orally o Revelation of spiritual teaching § Ethical and moral teaching § Conjures pictures of afterlife § Pictures were not favored § Representation of God · Not any picture of god or muhammad o Muhammad was represented with white cloth on face o Quaran was the miracle of Muhammad § Idea of life after death appauled Arabian peoples § Spoke of eternal damnation of those who are unjust § Outrages arabian peoples, threat ot social order, age-old traditions, and economy · People made Muhammad’s message difficult o Assassination § Pleaded for his uncles removal of Muhammad from family protection · Refused § 619 AD his uncle and Hadeejah died · No more protection · Yathrib provided protection for Muhammad o Agreed to travel In exchange for safe refuge § Bound together by faith § Marks Islams first beginnings § Known as Istrah § 622 in Christian calendar marks the Islam year one. · Medina town of Muhammad o Offered solidarity through religion § Did not refute other religions § Believed god had revealed his words to people many times § While in Medina, Muhammad received revelation of praying towards Mecca · Muslim army grew as bedouins realized Gods hand on muhammads side o Expanded to outskirts of Mecca § Until it finally fell to Muhammad o 630 B.C., people braced themselves, and Muhammad’s army went home, now 10k strong o Went to Mecca and embraced Meccans § Marched to Ka’ba, circled 7 times · Came to destroy pagan gods/ tribal gods of ancestors o Broke idols of independent tribes § Gods of fathers were destroyed § Iconoclasm · Unitedall separate segments in peninsula o Turned to north à Lebanon, Syria o East à egypt o Only sea stopped them · Absorbed 2/3 Christian- Byzantine empire and Sassinian empire o Larger than Roman empire · Success was because many people were fed up with the previous regime o Allowed conquered people to maintain administrative structure o Did not feel presence of regime very heavily o Free from clergy · Great mosque of Damascus became example to all mosques

Summary:
Prior to the rise of Islam in the Arabian Penninsula, the culture had been predominantly oral, with poetry expressing glory and stories of tribes. Pre-Islamic Arabians operated in bedouin tribes, which required the protection of family, or else they would not survive. The religion of these peoples were based on a mix of polytheism and animism, where they worshipped the nature-oriented spirits, such as trees, rocks, and springs. In 570 A.D., Muhammad was born in the Arabian peninsula. As a child, he was cast off to live with the bedouins. When his parents passed away, he was adopted by his uncle. After receiving revelations in a cave above Mecca, Muhammad saaw and angel, who gave him revelations, bearing the message that there is only one God. This single god became the basis for the monotheistic religion, and with a single god, there were no more tribal divisions. Eventually, Muhammad recited hiis revelations to scribes, which were recorded in the Quran. The Quran was Muhammad's miracle to be accepted as a prophet. Some aspects of the Quran appauled Arabian people, such as the idea of a life after death, and eternal damnation for the unjust. The Quran threatened social order, age-old traditions, and economy. People made the spread of Muhammad's message difficult, through assassination and the pleading of his uncle to remove Muhammad from family protection(failed). In 619 A.D., his uncle and wife Hadeejah died, meaning he had no more protection. The people of Yathrib offered Muhammad a sanction, and agreed to travel in exchange for safe refuge. Now, the tribe that accompanied Muhammad to Yathrib are bound together by faith. This, known as Istrah, is Islam's first beginning, and 622 in the Christian calendar marks the Islam year 1. Medina soon became the town of Muhammad, and offered solidarity through religion. It did not refute other religions. While in Medina, Muhammad received his revelation about praying towards Mecca. As this was taking place, Muhammad and Islam was waging war against bedouin tribes in hopes of gaining converts. While this conflict was dragging on, the Muslim army incrreased in size, and many realized that God's hand was on Muhammad;s side. The religion expanded to the outskirts of Mecca, until the city finally fell to Muhammad. In 630 B.C., people braced themselves, and Muhammad's army went home, now, with a force of 10,000. When it spread to Mecca, it embraced the Meccans, destroyed all pagan statues(iconoclasm). He united all separate segments of the Arabian peninsula, becoming larger than the Roman Empire. Islam's success was, in part, due to the fact that people were fed up with the previous regime. Islam allowed its conquered people to maintain administrative structure. Under this control, the conquered did not feel presence of the regime very heavily, and were free from clergy.

p. 136-142: Questions
**How did the death of Muhammad lead** to **the Expansion of Islam?**


 * **After the death of Muhammad, many new converts renounced the faith and the remaining followers argued over who should succeed him. The community manage to find new leaders who directed a series of campaigns to force those who had abandoned Islam to return to the fold. Muslim military commanders, by 633, united most of Arabia under Islam, and began expeditions beyond the peninsula. Courage, military prowess, and religious zeal of the warriors of Islam allowed stunning conquests in Mesopotamia, north Africa, and Persia.**
 * needed to ban together to maintain Islam --> more unity
 * expansion was explosive

**What were the motivations for Islamic conquest?**
 * ** common cause and strength accompanied unity, and gave the Muslims an opportunity of defense against non-Arab rulers. **
 * **through jihads, Muslims could glorify the Islamic religion, and forcibly spread it**
 * ** escape previous customs of the war-like bedouin tribes. **

> > > **What was the extent of the Islamic Empire under the Umayyads?** > How were people of the book treated under the Umayyads? Explain gender structures under the Umayyads**Marriage was important and emphasized > What factors led to the decline of the Umayyads?
 * How were the Umayyads able to defeat their adversaries?
 * Sasanian empire, commanders were not prepared for battle
 * political weakness, aristocracy was controlling autocratic emperor
 * attacked heart of empire
 * Byzantine empire had weakened defenses due to conflicts with Persia
 * technology paled in comparison to new Muslim naval power
 * Bedouin fleets
 * greatly weakened
 * concentrated in emperor, powers were exploited
 * farmers were exploited
 * zoraestrianism
 * What caused the major division in Islam?
 * **The division in Islam centered around succession of Muhammad, leading the the Sunni- Shi'a split. Ali supports Uthman as caliph. The Sunni believe that the first four caliphs were Muhammad's actual successors, and acknowlege them as religious leaders. The Shi'a believe that only Ali's heirs are Muhammad's true successors.**
 * spread into regions of central Asia
 * rivalry with Buddhism
 * 8th century- northwest India
 * swept across Africa, into Spain and almost France
 * 700's --> from Spain to Asia
 * **The Ummayad failed in their attempts to prevent interactions betweeen Muslim rulers and non-Muslim subjects
 * Those that voluntarily converted to Islam had to pay property tax.
 * when participating in plunders, they received nothing in return
 * Ummayads tolerated "dhimmi", clients of powerful Arab clans
 * overlords tolerated their religions
 * allowed to practice religion, but had to pay taxes.
 * moral and ethics stressed --> Muhammad denounced adultery
 * women were able to marry whomever they loved
 * monogamous
 * men could be polygamous, w/ stipulation of treating all wives equally
 * Women could participate in politics
 * could NOT lead prayers
 * Corruption of caliphs
 * accustomed to luxury, chosing it over war and retreating to pleasurable gardens and marble palaces
 * abandoned Muhammad's simple lifestyle
 * Warriors moved into Merv
 * married local women
 * dissent towards local government grew
 * 740's --> officials introduced new troops to Merv
 * started revolt in easter portions
 * 747 --> Abbasid v. Umayyads
 * allied with Shi'a and rebels won
 * 750 --> Battle of the River Zab
 * Abbasid won --> conquest of Syria and capture of Umayyad capital
 * Muhammad's uncles great great grandson, Abu al-Abbas aligned against Umayyads to prevent opposition to his rule
 * invited Umayyad leaders to banquet and killed them all

006: ESPIRIT on Abbasid Era:

 * E  || * Urban expansion
 * revival of Afro-European trading network
 * Abbasid domains in west and great Tang and Song empires in the east revived commercial system
 * **Dhows**
 * transported goods from one civilization to be exchanged with another
 * joint ventures with Christians and Jews
 * merchants prospered by supplying cities of the empire with provisions
 * profits from trade:
 * reinvested in new commercial enterprises
 * purchase of land
 * construction of great mansions
 * commercial hubs
 * charity, as required by Qur'an
 * building and operating mosques, religious schools, baths, and resthouses for weary travelers
 * hospitals
 * handicraft production
 * both government run and privately owned workshops expanded or were privately owned workshops expanded or established
 * produced furniture, carpets, glassware, jewelry, tapestries
 * artisans were poorly paid, NOT slave labor or drudge workers
 * owned own tools and valued for skill
 * formed guildlike organizations
 * negotiated wages and working conditions with merchants and supported their members in times of financial difficulty or personal crisis
 * Towns and countrysides --> unskilled labor
 * slaves
 * attached to prominent families and domestic servants
 * served caliphs and their highest advisors
 * **Ayans**: landlords
 * sometimes long established, some are newcomers:
 * funneled their profits and kickbacks into sizeable estates
 * peasants did not own land they cultivated
 * migrant workers, sharecroppers, tenants
 * needed to give most of crops to estate
 * Slave trade:
 * captured or purchased in non-Muslim regions surrounding the empire:
 * Balkans, central Asia, Sudanic Africa
 * sold in slave markets found in all of the larger towns of the empire ||
 * S  || * Artisans
 * poorly paid, NOT slave labor or drudge workers
 * owned own tools and valued for skill
 * formed guildlike organizations
 * negotiated wages and working conditions with merchants and supported their members in times of financial difficulty or personal crisi
 * Slaves
 * attached to prominent families and domestic servants
 * served caliphs and their highest advisors
 * Possible for clever and ambitious slaves to rise to positions of great power and many eventually were granted freedom or were able to buy it
 * less fortunate slaves were forced into hard labor
 * under overseer's whip on:
 * rural estates and government projects
 * draining marshlands
 * lifetime of labor in salt mines of southern Iraq
 * Ayan:
 * landed elite/ landlord
 * some; long established
 * others; newcomers, such as Arab soldiers who invested their share of booty in land
 * merchants and administrators who funneled their profits and kickbacks into sizeable estates
 * Peasants:
 * did not own land they worked
 * occupied as tenants, sharecroppers, migrant laborers
 * needed to give greater portions of crops they harvested to estate owners
 * Harem and veil:
 * became twin emblems of women's subjugation by men
 * confined to home
 * wives and concubines of Abbasid caliphs were restricted to forbidden quarters of imperial palace
 * many concubines were slaves
 * could win freedom and gain power by bearing healthy sons for rulers
 * growing welth of Abbasid elite called for increased demand for male and female slaves
 * found in great numbers in Baghdad and other cities
 * performed domestic services in the homes of wealthy
 * captured or purchased in non-Muslim regions surrounding the empire:
 * Balkans, central Asia, Sudanic Africa
 * caliphs spent more time with talented slave concubines rather than less educated freeborn wives
 * slave women could go to the market
 * did not have to wear veils and robes that were required for free women in public
 * Poor women:
 * wove clothing and rugs
 * raised silkworms to help support families
 * Rich women:
 * had no career outlets outside of home
 * married at puberty; legal age: 9
 * raised to devote their lives to running a household and serving their husbands
 * at highest levels of society, wives and concubines conspired against husbands
 * aligned with eunuchs and royal advisors to advance interests of their sons and win for them the ruler's backing of succession to the throne ||
 * P  || *  Caliphs:
 * presided over jewel-encrusted thrones
 * overlooked gatherings of coutiers and petitioners who bowed before them in gilt and marble audience halls
 * as claims of absolute power expanded over Islamic faithfuls and non-Muslims so did their palaces and harems
 * expanded to keep pace w/ claims of absolute power
 * **Wazir**- chief administrator and head of the caliph’s inner councils
 * lived and worked w/in walls of Baghdad
 * Bureaucratization of Islamic empire
 * Oversaw the building of an administration infrastructure that allowed the Abbasids to project demands for tribute to most distant provinces of their empire.
 * Converts did not have to pay head tax and gained great opportunities
 * advanced schooling, adminstrators, traders, judges
 * Persians: bureaucratic skill --> dominated upper levels of imperial administration
 * **Al- Mahdi** (775-785) :
 * third Abbasid caliph
 * courtly excesses and political divisions contributed to decline of the empire
 * attempt to reconcile moderates among Shi'a opposition to Abbasid rule were in vain
 * Shi'a revolts and assassination attempts against Abbasid officials would plague the dynasty to the end of its days
 * established a taste for luxury and monumental buildings
 * multiple wives, concubines, courtiers
 * failed to solve problem of succession
 * indecisive on which of his older sons would succeed him
 * allowed wives and concubines, mothers of different candidates to become involved in the palace intrigues that became standard feature of the transfer of power from one caliph to the next.
 * **Harun al Rashid** (786-809): son of Al-Mahdi
 * shared his father's taste for sumptuous living
 * dazzled Christians with splendor of Baghdad's mosques, palaces, and treasure troves
 * sent them back to Charlemagne w/ presents
 * water clock, an elephant
 * accession to the throne: 23 yr old
 * dependent on family of Persian advisors
 * growth of power of royal advisors at the expense of of the caliphs became a clear trend im succeeding reigns
 * Death of Harun led to civil wars over succession:
 * ended the real power of caliphs
 * **al-Ma'mun** (813-833):
 * victorious in Civil War and was convinced that they needed to build personal armies in anticipation of the fight for the throne that would break out when their father died
 * one of the sons, victor in next round of succession:
 * recruited a body guard of 4000 slaves
 * became caliph: mercenary force of 70,000
 * **846**: mercenary force murdered reigning caliph and placed one of his sons on the throne
 * next decade:
 * 4 more caliphs were assassinated or poisoned by mercenary forces
 * leaders of the slave mercenary forces were often the real power behind the Abbasid throneand were major players in the struggles for control of the capital and empire
 * mercenaries were major force for social unrest
 * Last decades of 9th century:
 * dynasty brought slave armies under control for a time, with great cost
 * constant civil violence drained the treasury and alienated the subjects of the Abbasids
 * further restrain on empire's decreasing revenues by some caliph's attempts to escape the turmoil of Baghdad by establishing new capitals near the original one
 * construction of palaces, mosques, and public works compiled on immense costs of maintaining court and imperial administration
 * expense fell heavily on the already hard-pressed peasantry of central provinces of empire
 * support of mercenary troops increased revenues on peasantry
 * taxation and pillaging led to destruction of many villages in richest provinces of empire
 * great irrigation works that were essential to agricultural production in Tigris-Euprates basin proved to be irrepairable
 * some peasants died in flood, famine, violent assault
 * others fled to wilderness areas beyond the reach of Abbasid tax collectors
 * Mid-10th Century:
 * independent kingdoms formed in areas that were once provinces of the empire
 * **945**: armies of one of these regional splinter dynasties:
 * **Buyids of Persia**
 * invaded heartland of Abbasid empire and captured Baghdad
 * Buyid leaders took title of "**sultan**"- victorious
 * designated Muslim rulers
 * controlled the caliph and the court
 * could not prevent further disintegration of the empire
 * a little over a century, Buyid control over caliphat was broken
 * 1055: nomadic invaders from central Asia via Persia
 * **Seljuk Turks**
 * Turkic military leaders ruled the remaining portions of the Abbasid empire in the name of caliphs for next 2 centuries
 * were Sunnis
 * moved rapidly to purger Shi'a officials risen to power under the Buyids
 * rid caliph domains of Shi'a influences the Buyids tried to promote
 * Seljuk military rule was able to restore political initiative to much reduced caliphate
 * victories ended threat of conquest by rival Shi'a dynasty centered in Egypt
 * Byzantine defeat led to settlement of Asia Minor
 * Muslim political divisions made it simple for crusaders to capture much of Holy Land and divide into Christian kingdoms, b/t 1096- 1099
 * June 1099 - Jerusalem captured, Christian knights slaughtered Muslim and Jewish inhabitants
 * 12 century:
 * rise of **Salah-uh-Din**
 * Muslims rapidly reconquered most of crusader outposts
 * death led to disperse of kingdom and loss of remaining Christian citadels
 * 1291 = fall of **Acre**, last of crusader kingdoms
 * 13th century:
 * 1220s: **Mongols**, under **Chiggis Khan** first raided and smashed the Turko-Persian kingdoms to the east of Baghdad
 * Chiggis died before reaching heartlands of Muslim world
 * Grandson **Hulegu** took his position by 1250s
 * 1258: Baghdad was captured by Mongols and much was sacked
 * 37th and last caliph was killed by Mongols
 * continued westward until defeat by the **Mamluks**
 * **1401:** Abbasid kingdom suffered another pillaging from forces of Tamerlane
 * Baghdad shrank from the status of one of the greatest cities of the world to a provincial backwater ||
 * I  || *  artistic expression
 * great mosques
 * advances in legal, religious, and philosophical discourse
 * mathematics and science
 * recovering and preserving the learning of ancient civilizations of Mediterranean and Middle East
 * recovered writings of the Greeks
 * medicine, algebra, geometry, astronomy, anatomy, ethics
 * recopied in Arabic and spread through empire
 * major corrections to algebraic and geometric theories; trigonometry: sine, cosine, and tangent
 * Greek writing made its way into Christendom from Spain
 * Aristotle, Galen, Hippocrates, Ptolemy, Euclid
 * scholars working in Arabic transmitted ideas:
 * paralleled the rise of Arab traders and merchants as the carriers of goods and inventions
 * ie: Muslim invaders learned of Indian system of numbers
 * brought from India, to Middle Eastern centers of Islamic civilizations
 * transmitted across Mediterranean to Italy, to northern Europe
 * mastered Arabic numerals and decimal system
 * benefitted from great advances Arab and Persian thinkers had made in mathematics and sciences
 * European demands for Middle Eastern textiles
 * Oriental rugs, tapestries
 * reflected in names for different kinds of cloths
 * **fustian**
 * **taffeta**
 * **muslin**
 * **damask**
 * expansion of professional classes
 * doctors, scholars, legal and religious experts
 * Muslim, Jewish, and in some areas, Christian entrepreneurs amassed great fortunes
 * supplied cities of the empire with staples, such as grain and barley
 * cotton and wool textiles for clothing
 * luxury items, such as precious gems, citrus fruits, and sugar cane
 * long distance trade b/t Middle East and Mediterranean Europe and b/t coastal India and island Southeast Asia, and overland caravan trade with China
 * Persian wives, concubines, advisors, bureaucrats, and caliphs played central roles in imperial politics
 * as a result, Persian replaced Arabic as primary written language at Abbasid Court
 * Arabic remained the language of religion, law, and natural sciences
 * Persian of Abbasid Age:
 * written from modified Arabic script and drawing selectively on Arabic vocabulary
 * best known pieces of Persian literature:
 * **Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam**
 * **Shah-Nama**: surpassed Khayyam
 * written by **Firdawsi** in late 10th and early 11th centuries
 * relates the history of Persia from the beginning of times to the Islamic conquests, abounds in dramatic details of battles, intrigues, and love affairs
 * **al-Razi's** scheme of catagorizing all material substances:
 * animal
 * vegetable
 * material
 * **al-Biruni:**
 * calculated specific weight of 18 major materials
 * astronomical tables and maps of the stars
 * best hospitals/ medical care in world
 * doctors and pharmacists had to follow regular course of study and pass a formal examination before they were allowed to practice
 * muslim scientists worked on optics and bladder ailments
 * Muslim traders introduced into the Islamic world and Europe:
 * basic machines and techniques:
 * papermaking, silk-weaving, ceramic firing
 * made world's best maps
 * **al-Ghazali:**
 * greatest Islamic theologian
 * struggled to fuse Greek and Qur'anic traditions
 * were rejected by orthodox scholars ||
 * R  || *  Abbasid Era- saw integration of new converts, Arab and non-Arab
 * Last decades of Umayyad period, there was an increasing number of acceptance of the Mali, non-Arab Muslims
 * Efforts to win converts outside of Arabian peninsula
 * Discarded practice of dividing booty b/t believers
 * Mass conversions to Islam were encouraged for all peoples of the empire
 * Berbers of north Africa, Persians, Turkics
 * admitted on equal standing with first generation believers
 * Sufis and other religious figures were responsible for the conversions to Islam
 * traveled by caravan into central Asia, across the Sahara, and seas, using dhows
 * dhows were essential to spread of Islamic faith
 * Resurgence of mysticism injected Islam with new vibrancy
 * Religious orthodox scholars, ie. **ulama** grew hostile to non-Islamic ideas and scientific thinking
 * believed that Qur'an was the final product and revelation of an all-knowing divinity
 * **Sufist Movement:**
 * Sufis were wandering mystics, who sought personal union with Allah
 * In Sunni and Shi'a manifestations, Sufism was a reaction against the impersonal and abstract divinity that many ulama scholars argued was the true god of the Qur'an
 * tried to see beyond what they believed to be the illusory existence of everyday life and to delight in the presence of Allah in the world
 * some Sufis led militant bands that tried to spread Islam to nonbelievers
 * some used asceticism or bodily denial to find Allah
 * others used meditation, song, drugs, and ecstatic dancing ||
 * I  || *  **dhows** carried goods of one civilized core to be exchanged with those of another
 * Muslim merchants often formed joint ventures with Christians and Jews
 * **Seljuks** faced challenge to Islamic civilization:
 * **Christian crusaders** from Europe
 * wanted to capture portions of Islamic world, comprised of Holy Land of biblical times
 * Muslim political divisions made it simple for crusaders to capture much of Holy Land and divide into Christian kingdoms, b/t 1096- 1099
 * June 1099 - Jerusalem captured, Christian knights slaughtered Muslim and Jewish inhabitants
 * **Crusades** helped maintain Christian hold in eastern Mediterranean region
 * led to spread of Christianity and capture of Holy Land
 * intensified European borrowing from the Muslim world
 * ie. damascene swords were copied in Europe
 * building fortifications
 * Muslim influences affected both the elite and popular cultures of much of western Europe
 * Persian and Arabic Words
 * games, ie chess
 * chivalric ideas
 * troubadour ballads
 * foods, ie dates, coffee, yogurt
 * Muslim traders importedsome manufactures, but overall, did not show interest in learning about western cultures
 * glass
 * cloth
 * raw materials
 * In the 13th century, **Mongols** invaded Abbasid domains ||
 * T  || *  **dhows**- sailing vessels with triangular/ lateen sails
 * sailed according to seasonal pattern set by direction of the monsoon winds
 * were too small to provide a suitable firing platform for regular cannon
 * could not carry enough soldiers to grapple, board, and overwhelm crews of enemy ships
 * waterpumps
 * windmills
 * damascene swords ||
 * windmills
 * damascene swords ||