The+Americas

THE AMERICAS ON THE EVE OF INVASION
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001: ESPIRIT on Aztecs:


Summary: **Following the Toltec Empire, emerged the Aztecs, in 1150, around Lake Texcoco. The Aztecs were a technologically advanced and highly religious civilization.** The city of **Tenochtitlan,** established in 1325 C.E., became the center of trade and operations in the Aztec empire. In this empire, cacao and gold dust served as forms of currency. The Aztecs developed an irrigation system and chinampas, which were small islands spanning 100 - 330 feet wide. Part of their economy was derived from periodic markets, such as that of **Tlatelolco**, where bartering and trading took place. These markets were regulated by **pochetecas**, who sold luxury goods, such as plumes and tropical birds. The Aztecs were also a highly religious group, which even trickled into the political aspect of the civilzation. The kings was perceived to be a manifestation of the gods on earth and wielded absolute control. Infrastructure also revolved around religion, as large pyramids were constructed and used for rituals.There were over 128 deities, which took male and female forms, to represent duality. There was little distinction between gods and the natural world. There were three catagories of gods; agricultural gods, universal gods, and warfare gods. Slaves and conquered people were not only put to work, but also used in rituals. Aztec images were also influenced by religion, as it reflected depictions of human hearts, blood, birds, god, feasting, and other aspects. The Aztecs came into contact with other groups through trade and conquest. They spoke **Nahuatl,** the language of the Toltecs, and also interacted at Tenochtitlan.
 * E || **Aztec economy was focused around long distance trading and dependence on merchant, as well as peasant class.**
 * depended on forms of agriculture and innovations developed by the Aztecs
 * sometimes, land of conquered people were appropriated
 * food demanded as tributed
 * irrigation systems built in and around lakes
 * **chinampas**
 * beds of aquatic weeds, mud, and earth that were placed in frames of cane and rooted to the floor
 * artificial floating islands, approx. 100 - 330 feet wide
 * labor by Aztec peasantry provided basic food
 * local clan apportioned lands
 * some were also set aside for support of temples and state
 * individual nobles might have private estates
 * were operated by servants or slaves from conquered people
 * each community had periodic markets
 * every 5 and 13 days
 * wide variety of goods were exchanged
 * cacao beans, gold dust were sometimes used as currency
 * much trade was done by **barter system**
 * market of **Tlatelolco** operated daily
 * controlled by special merchant class/ **pochteca**
 * heavily regulated
 * specialized in long distance trade in luxury items
 * plumes of tropical birds
 * cacao sometimes used for money
 * higly regulated
 * under control of judges and inspectors
 * many use and commodities were controlled by the state
 * power was concentrated in the capital of Tenochtitlan
 * collected 120,000 mantles of cotton as tribute
 * state controlled distributions of various goods from various people the Aztecs conquered ||
 * S || **Class distinction separated the Aztecs, but each class played an important role contributing to the wealth of the empire.**
 * 1325:
 * group of about 10,000 people who migrated to shores of Lake Texcoco
 * following fall of Toltec Empire, central valley was inhabitied by mixture of peoples
 * Chichimec migrants from northwest and various groups of sedentary farmers
 * at this time, the area around the lake was dominated by several tribes or peoples organized into city-states
 * political maneuvers
 * state marriages
 * political units claimed authority on basis of military power
 * Aztecs were distrusted by dominant powers of the area
 * fight skills were honed
 * made them attracitve as mercenaries/ allies
 * subjected people were forced to pay tribute
 * surrender land
 * do military service for growing Aztec Empire
 * some were chosen to serve the gods
 * human sacrifice
 * seven calpulli (clans)
 * major building block of Aztec society
 * governed by councils of family
 * not all had equal influence
 * As Aztec empire increased, they were more stratified
 * adapted to their own imperial position
 * no longer only kinship groups, but also residential groupings
 * include neighbors
 * allies
 * dependants
 * much of local life depended on calpulli
 * performed important functions as distributing land to heads of households
 * organizing labor gangs and military units in times of war
 * maintaining temple and school
 * calpulli were governed by councils of family heads
 * not all families were equal or of equal status
 * originally, everyone was born into calpulli
 * but aztec power increased to rule of the empire
 * other forms of social stratification emerged
 * nobility
 * originated from lineages that headed calpulli and from
 * marriages
 * military achievements
 * service to state
 * these nobles accumulated high offices
 * private lands
 * controlled priesthood
 * military
 * depended on experience
 * capture of LIVE captives
 * imperial families were the most distinguised of the pipiltin families
 * nobility broke free from old calpulli and acquired private lands
 * new class of workers emerged
 * like serfs, served as laborers on these lands
 * did not control land
 * worked at will of others
 * low status
 * above that of slaves, however
 * slaves were :
 * prisoners of war
 * criminals
 * people who had sold themselves into bondage to avoid hunger
 * women were unequal in patriarchal society
 * worked in households
 * child-rearing
 * cooking
 * weaving
 * training younger girls
 * marriages were arranged b/t lineages
 * virginity at marriage was highly regarded for young women
 * polygamy in nobility
 * monogamy in peasants
 * women inherited and passed property ||
 * P || **The Aztecs were a military force that intimidated its enemies and often, as a result, encouraged alliances between regions. The rulers spread power through military and marriage methods.**
 * came into power after the Toltec Empire
 * 1150: defeat of Toltec Empire
 * center of pop. and political power shifted to valley of Mexico and esp. shores of large chain of lakes in that basin
 * rise to power and formed imperial state
 * legend: Aztecs were civilized and knew agricultural methods but lived in exile in Aztlan
 * one of many nomadic tribes that used political anarchy
 * after fall of Toltecs, to penetrate the are a of sedentary peoples
 * political maneuvers, state marriages, competing powers, shifting alliances
 * following fall of Toltec Empire, central valley was inhabitied by mixture of peoples
 * Chichimec migrants from northwest and various groups of sedentary farmers
 * at this time, the area around the lake was dominated by several tribes or peoples organized into city-states
 * political maneuvers
 * state marriages
 * political units claimed authority on basis of military power
 * Aztecs were distrusted by dominant powers of the area
 * fight skills were honed
 * made them attracitve as mercenaries/ allies
 * **Moctezuma II:**
 * Aztec state was dominated by a king who represented civil power and served as representative of gods on earth
 * cult of human sacrifice and conquest
 * united with political power of ruler and nobility ||
 * I || **Aztecs interacted with others through trade and conquests.**
 * spoke **Nahuatl**, language spoken by Toltecs
 * Aztecs migrated into central Mexico valley following fall of Toltec empire in 1150
 * trade and military conquest
 * interacted with people around **Tenochtitlan**
 * conquered people were forced to
 * pay tribute
 * surrender lands
 * complete military service for Aztec Empire
 * established dominance over those they ruled ||
 * R || **Religion was a prevalent force that affected the ruler and war captives.**
 * religion was the vast, uniting, and sometimes oppressive force in which little distinction was made b/t the world of the gods and the natural world
 * gods of rain
 * fire
 * water
 * corn
 * sky
 * sun
 * 128 deities
 * male and female forms
 * represented duality
 * 3 major themese/ cults:
 * gods of fertility/ agricultural cycle:
 * **Tlaloc -** god of rain, and god s and goddesses of water, maize, and fertility
 * creator deities
 * great gods and goddesses who had brought the universe into being
 * cult of warfare and sacrifice
 * **Huitzilopochtli** - Aztec tribal patron, central figure of this cult
 * feared great tribal deities
 * **Tlaloc**
 * **Quetzalcoatl,** god of civilization
 * **Huitzilopochtli** = paramount
 * human sacrifice
 * symbolism and ritual like cannibalism with sacrifices ||
 * I || **Aztec intellect revolved around language, art and mythology.**
 * spoke Nahuatl
 * Aztec mythology explained birth and history of god
 * cannibalism was part of culture
 * Toltec Art:
 * eagles devouring human hearts
 * warrior cults
 * jaguars
 * Aztec art and poetry
 * Gods
 * hearts
 * flowers
 * birds
 * blood
 * feasting
 * singing ||
 * T || **Most of Aztec technology regarded agriculture.**
 * agricultural innovations
 * irrigation
 * chinampas - artificial floating islands
 * animal/ water powered objects
 * power mills
 * women ground corn for 6 hours ||

002: ESPIRIT on Incas:



 * E || **The Incas were primarily self-sufficient, with limited trade, due to emphasis on state regulation. They focused, for the most part, on agriculture.**
 * centralized system that integrated various ethnic groups into an imperial state
 * extensive irrigated agriculture supported state religion and royal ancestor cult
 * had extensive agricultural system
 * limited trade
 * resulted from Incan emphasis of state regulation
 * conquer of Mesoamerica
 * expanded to Andean highlands, intertwining with old Andean cultures
 * Multiple marriages
 * led to civil wars
 * rival clans
 * emphasized self-sufficiency
 * had state management government
 * Incan king sapa Inca owned all land
 * gave farmers land to grow food
 * in return, they had to work for him
 * reserved some land for himself
 * set some land for temple
 * worked on land
 * building projects
 * resources:
 * agricultural land
 * mines
 * waters
 * used these resources to keep control of empire for long periods of time
 * tribute played role in economy
 * building projects
 * irrigation systems
 * terrace farming
 * b/c incan govt was totolitarian, it could accomplish this
 * regulated everything important
 * trade
 * road
 * 8km wide, ran 5000 km
 * from Chile to columbia
 * used llamas as pack animals
 * carry roughly 50 kg of cargo
 * inca domain easy accessible by brach roads
 * runners and messengers posted evey 2-15 km
 * allowed local leaders to send for more supplies
 * women wove cloth and wool ||
 * S || **Incan society placed heavy emphasis on loyalty, esp. for conquered peoples. Men and women were militarily inferior, but could both own property.**
 * Most peasants and herders were men
 * Women : had low status
 * were required to weave high quality cloth for court and religion
 * wool was provided
 * self-sufficiency
 * each household needed to produce cloth
 * militarily inferior to men
 * men and women could own land
 * tended to worship gods and goddesses of corn
 * some worked as concubines/ temple servants
 * chosen by beauty
 * concubines
 * less beautiful were priestesses
 * tended to household
 * **Yanas**- people forced to work permanently as servants, artisans, and nobility
 * social classes:
 * power of men revealed selection for state and temple purposes
 * nobility had special priveleges
 * clothes and custom
 * no distinct merchant class
 * sapa inca
 * descendent of sun god
 * visitor had to remove shoes to approach him
 * carry heavy burden to show respecty
 * noble
 * curacas
 * were not inca
 * conquered people
 * took leaders sons and taught them to rule like inca
 * craftmans and farmers
 * worked w/ gold, silver, copper ||
 * P || ** Incan rulers exercised supreme control ,because they were perceived to be a representation of god. Loyalty was an important aspect. **
 * Inca ruler was regarded as a god
 * ruled in court in Cuzco
 * often related to high priest
 * Split interitance:
 * used after expansion
 * power would go to successor and wealth and land would be passed to male desecendents
 * justified endless expansion
 * 4 province split
 * governed by individual governor
 * Bureaucratic state established after fusion w/ Andean culture
 * also had mixture of cultures and languages
 * part of nobility
 * nobles were active participants
 * local leaders could retain power in exchange for loyalty to Incas
 * Chimor: centered on capital of Chan Chan
 * 1465 - gained more power after being conquered by Incas
 * **Pachacuti (1438- 1471)**
 * created strong military alliance
 * expanded to territories of Cuzco to Titicaca
 * **Topac Yupanqui- Son of Pachacuti**
 * conquered Chimor and captured irrigation system
 * expansion into Equador
 * **Huayna Capac (1493- 1527)**
 * ended resistance of Araucanian Indians
 * conquered people were forced to join the army
 * rewarded with goods if land was conquered
 * integrated imperial policy with regional diversity ||
 * I || **Military expansion and trade often brought the Incas to other regions and interacted with other cultures.**
 * Most of Incan interactions focused soley on the people they conquered and traded with.
 * Topac Yuanqui conquered Chimor
 * made it more powerful
 * extended empire from Columbia to Chile and eastwards to Bolivia and Argentina
 * Conquered people were
 * forced to join them, OR
 * forced into labor
 * had to pay taxes
 * give loyalty
 * they served in military to get rewardd for conquests
 * were given goods ||
 * R || **Religion was an important aspect and affect politics. The sun was considered the highest deity and land was divided into 4 areas according to religion.**


 * sun was considered highest deity
 * Inca ruler was on eart has a representation of god
 * Temple of sun located at Cuzco
 * was center of state religion
 * housed mummies of previous rulers
 * belived to be protected by gods
 * allowed worship of other deities
 * land was divided into 4 areas, according to:
 * land
 * people
 * sun god
 * priests
 * mountains, stones, rivers, caves, tombs, shrines were all believed to be holy shrines
 * operated by male priests and women
 * held celebrations
 * huancas were offered for prayers and sacrifices
 * also offered :
 * animal
 * food
 * human ||
 * I || **Incan intellect centered around language and artwork.**
 * Cuzco served as a place of intellect
 * place where men were educated
 * **Quechua** language
 * used for colonists, mitmaqs
 * vital technique in the integration of the empire and transfer of people
 * Mummification of rulers
 * built artwork from predecessors
 * cloth in workshops
 * extravagant pottery ||
 * T || **The Incans were able to manipulate metals, build elaborate structures, and create pottery.**
 * metallurgy
 * artisans built materials with gold and silver
 * copped and brone were used to forge weapons
 * advanced architecture
 * **Tambos** built along the road
 * way stations
 * places that were inns
 * warehouses
 * supply centers for Inca armies
 * great stone buildings
 * agricultural terraces
 * irrigation projects
 * road system
 * all organized by state
 * **Quipu**
 * system of knotted strings for accounts and enumeration
 * statecraft ||
 * Summary: The rise of the Incas in 1300 saw an integration with previous cultures of the Andean tribes, leading to proliferation of power and economy.** A bureacracy formed from this fusion, in which the nobility were active participants, showing that people were born into their class. There were social distinctions between peasants, nobles, and merchants. The Incan empire expanded under **Pachacuti** and his son, **Topac Yupanqui**, first from Cuzco to Lake Titicaca, and then, spread into Equador. Their demands were simple, join, or be executed. Conquests brought the Incas to interact with other regions. Some leaders kept power, as long as they sworn loyalty to the Incas. Human sacrifice was an important part of Incan religion. The main deity was the sun, and the Incan ruler was placed on earth as a representation of god. There was a sun temple, dedicated to the sun, in which ceremonies and preparations are held. The idea of split inheritance gave power to his successor after his death, along with his wealth and land. Social aspect of the Incas, was that women were expected to weave and produce cloths, while men either joined the army, or were peasants and herders.Both men and women had property rights. Women were, however, militarily inferior to men. Metallugry was also an innovation of the Incas, in that they were able to produce items with gold and silver, and forged weapons and tools out of copper. The Incas also developed **Quipu**, which was a system of knotted strings which served as accounts and enumeration. They also had elaborate architecture, where they build great stone buildings, irrigation, road systems, and terraces, all sponsored by the state.
 * Summary: The rise of the Incas in 1300 saw an integration with previous cultures of the Andean tribes, leading to proliferation of power and economy.** A bureacracy formed from this fusion, in which the nobility were active participants, showing that people were born into their class. There were social distinctions between peasants, nobles, and merchants. The Incan empire expanded under **Pachacuti** and his son, **Topac Yupanqui**, first from Cuzco to Lake Titicaca, and then, spread into Equador. Their demands were simple, join, or be executed. Conquests brought the Incas to interact with other regions. Some leaders kept power, as long as they sworn loyalty to the Incas. Human sacrifice was an important part of Incan religion. The main deity was the sun, and the Incan ruler was placed on earth as a representation of god. There was a sun temple, dedicated to the sun, in which ceremonies and preparations are held. The idea of split inheritance gave power to his successor after his death, along with his wealth and land. Social aspect of the Incas, was that women were expected to weave and produce cloths, while men either joined the army, or were peasants and herders.Both men and women had property rights. Women were, however, militarily inferior to men. Metallugry was also an innovation of the Incas, in that they were able to produce items with gold and silver, and forged weapons and tools out of copper. The Incas also developed **Quipu**, which was a system of knotted strings which served as accounts and enumeration. They also had elaborate architecture, where they build great stone buildings, irrigation, road systems, and terraces, all sponsored by the state.

Apocalypto Notes :

Mayans: ritual painted blue kept as prisoners -dance many in attendance -excited buildings like pyramids had images inscribed into them stairs that went up to high elevation -man with demon mask intimidating blade to cut hand, make bleed for ritual chanting addressing the people "God is not happy, we will make him happy" stabbed in stomach removed organ threw head down stairs -background looks like villages with huts --> large solar eclipse or other sign serves as satisfaction from god human sacrifice pleases gods decapitation --> religious zeal -military --> 2nd or 3rd in command priest connected to spirits -social clear class distinction b/t classes