The+Muslim+Empires

THE MUSLIM EMPIRES



001: Ottoman Empire ESPIRIT:

 * E || **MI: The economy of the Ottoman empire centered around military and expansion, and the trade that took place was closely regulated by the government.**
 * economy of empire was geared towards warfare and expansion
 * profited from expansion and areas annexed
 * Muslim traders
 * commerce within the empire was in the hands of Christian and Jewish merchants --> dhimmis; people of the book, and were under the protection of Ottoman rulers
 * Constantinople, the Ottoman empire captial's harbors and Golden Horn, were crowded with merchant ships from ports throughout the region
 * bazaars were filled with merchants and travelers from throughout the empire and places as distant as England and Malaya
 * offered all manner of produce, from spices of the Indies and the ivory of Africa to slaves and forest products from Russia and fine carpets from Persia
 * Ottoman regime closely regulated commercial exchanges and handicraft production
 * gov't inspectors were employed to ensure that standard weights and measures were used and to license the opening of shops ||
 * S || **MI: In the Ottoman state, military leaders played a dominant role, and troops called Janissaries formed, comprised of conscripted adolescent boys.**
 * military leaders played dominant role in Ottoman state
 * Turkic cavalry gradually developed into a warrior aristocracy.
 * were granted control over land and peasant producers in annexed areas for the support of their households and military retainers.
 * from 15th century on, members of the warrior class also vied with religious leaders and administrators drawn from other social groups for control of the expanding Ottoman bureaucracy.
 * power of warrior class shrank at the center, building up regional and local bases of support
 * competed with sultans and central bureaucracy for revenue and labor control
 * imperial armies were increasingly dominated by infantry division and formed troops called **Janissaries**
 * had been forcibly conscripted as adolescent boys in conquered areas, such as Balkans, where the majority of pop. retained Christian faith
 * sometimes boys' parents willingly turned their sons over to Ottoman recruiters because of the opportunities for advancement that came with service to Ottoman sultans
 * were legally slaves, but given fairly extensive schooling for the time and converted to Islam
 * some went on to serve in palace or bureaucracy, but most became Janissaries
 * became powerful component of Ottoman military machine, because they controlled the artillery and firearms that became vital to Ottoman success in battles against Christians and Muslims
 * growing importance of Janissaries led to decline in role of aristocratic cavalry
 * by late 15th century, Janissaries were deeply involved in court politics
 * coffeehouses --> place of gossip, business, and chess playing
 * artisans organized into guilds
 * guild officers set craft standards, arbitrated disputes b/t members, and provided financial assistance for needy members ||
 * P || **MI: Ottoman rulers operated according to an absolute monarchy, but maintained position through factions in warrior elites. The Ottomans suffered from vague Islamic principles that were incorporated into politics.**
 * Ottoman rulers were absolute monarchs
 * maintained position by creating factions in warrior elite off each other and pitting the warriors as a whole against the Janissaries and other groups
 * Islamic religious scholars and legal experts retained many of the administrative functions they held under the Arab caliphs of earlier centuries
 * Ottoman sultans, like Abbasid caliphs, grew increasingly distant from their subjects as their empire increased in size and wealth
 * followed day-to-day rituals based on those of earlier Byzantine, Persian, and Arab dynasties in splendid marble palaces, pleasure gardens, wives and concubines of harems
 * Daily administration was carried out by a large bureaucracy headed by a grand **vizier**
 * was overall head of imperial administration, often held more real power than the sultan
 * Ottomans suffered greatly because they inherited Islamic principles of political succession that remained vague and contested
 * existence of many talented and experienced claimants to the throne meant constant danger of civil strife
 * death of sultan could protract warfare among his sons
 * defeated claimants sometimes fled to the domains of Christian or Muslim rulers hostile to Ottomans, becoming rallying points for military campaigns against the son who had gained the throne
 * collapse of Seljuk Turkic kingdom of Rum in eastern Anatolia in Asia Minor, after invasion by the Mongols in 1243, opened way for the Ottomans to seize power in their own right.
 * Mongols raided but did not directly rule Anatolia, which fell into a period of warfare between would-be successors of the Seljuk sultans. One of these peoples, called the **Ottomans**, after Osman, came to dominate the rest, and within decades they had begun to build a new empire based in Anatolia.
 * created empire along Bosporus straits in Europe
 * 1453- Mehmed II, "The Conquerer," led an attack into Byzantine, which numbered over 100,000, and assaulted the triple ring of landed walls that guarded the city.
 * looted and pillaged the city
 * two centuries after the conquering of Constantinople, the armies of a succession of able Ottoman rulers extended the empire in Syria and Egypt across north Africa, thus bringing under their rule the bulk of the Arab world.
 * empire also spread through the Balkans into Hungary in Europe and around the Black and Red Seas
 * became established naval power in Mediterranean Sea
 * Ottoman armies drove out Venetians and Genoese from much of the eastern Mediterranean and threatened southern Italy with invasion on several occasions
 * 1683 - Ottoman armies captured Austrian Habsburg dynasty at Vienna ||
 * I || **MI: Beginning with Medmed II, Ottoman sultans strove to restore the capital, Constantinople to its former glory, and build mosques. Poetry was prevalent, as was Persian, but poets preferred using Turkish language.**
 * with capital situated in Constantinople, Mehmed II set on restoring the city to its ancient glory.
 * Cathedral of Saint Sophia converted into one of the grandest mosques in Islamic world
 * , and new mosques and palaces were built throughout city
 * construction benefitted greatly from architectural advances the Ottoman derived from Byzantine heritage
 * aqueducts were built from surrounding hills to supply the growing population with water, markets were reopened, and the city's defenses were repaired
 * each sultan after Mehmed strove to build better palaces
 * **Suleymaniye**, mosque built at the behest of the most successful sultans, **Suleyman the Magnificent**(1520-1566)
 * sultans also built mansions, rest houses, religious schools, hospitals throughout the city
 * early Ottomans wrote in Persian, and Arabic remained an important language for works on law and religion
 * 17th century --> Turkish language of Ottoman court had become the preferred mode of expression for poets and historians
 * poetry ||
 * R || **MI: The Ottomans were largely Muslim, and a threat to Christian kingdoms of Europe, but still used Christians as a military force.**
 * Muslim
 * large threat to Christian empires of Europe
 * however, used Christian soldiers, known as Janissaries
 * trained and converted to Islam ||
 * I || **MI: Ottoman interactions centered around expansion and annexing of regions after their rise to power in the Asia Minor.**
 * collapse of Seljuk Turkic kingdom of Rum in eastern Anatolia in Asia Minor, after invasion by the Mongols in 1243, opened way for the Ottomans to seize power in their own right.
 * Mongols raided but did not directly rule Anatolia, which fell into a period of warfare between would-be successors of the Seljuk sultans. One of these peoples, called the **Ottomans**, after Osman, came to dominate the rest, and within decades they had begun to build a new empire based in Anatolia.
 * created empire along Bosporus straits in Europe
 * 1453- Mehmed II, "The Conquerer," led an attack into Byzantine, which numbered over 100,000, and assaulted the triple ring of landed walls that guarded the city.
 * looted and pillaged the city
 * two centuries after the conquering of Constantinople, the armies of a succession of able Ottoman rulers extended the empire in Syria and Egypt across north Africa, thus bringing under their rule the bulk of the Arab world.
 * empire also spread through the Balkans into Hungary in Europe and around the Black and Red Seas
 * became established naval power in Mediterranean Sea
 * Ottoman armies drove out Venetians and Genoese from much of the eastern Mediterranean and threatened southern Italy with invasion on several occasions
 * 1683 - Ottoman armies captured Austrian Habsburg dynasty at Vienna ||
 * T || **MI:During the reign of the Ottoman Empire, architecture, such as the building of mosques, palaces, and others, as well as ceramics, and carpet manufacturing flourished.**
 * build mosques, mansions, rest houses, religious schools, hospitals throughout the city
 * city and its suburbs stretched along both sides of the Bosporus, the narrow strait between the Mediterranean and Black seas
 * with capital situated in Constantinople, Mehmed II set on restoring the city to its ancient glory.
 * Cathedral of Saint Sophia converted into one of the grandest mosques in Islamic world
 * , and new mosques and palaces were built throughout city
 * construction benefitted greatly from architectural advances the Ottoman derived from Byzantine heritage
 * aqueducts were built from surrounding hills to supply the growing population with water, markets were reopened, and the city's defenses were repaired
 * each sultan after Mehmed strove to build better palaces
 * **Suleymaniye**, mosque built at the behest of the most successful sultans, **Suleyman the Magnificent**(1520-1566)
 * ceramics, carpet manufacturing, architecture ||

002: Mughal Empire ESPIRIT:



 * E || **MI: The economy of the Mughal Empire centered around trade with Asian and European nations on cheaply produced and easily washed cotton cloth. Another source of revenue came from tributes paid by military retainers and land taxes.**
 * by 17th century, Mughal India had become one of the major overseas destinations for European traders
 * brought products throughout Asia, and little from Europe, to exchange for a variety of Indian manufactures, particularly the sub-continent's famed cotton textiles
 * trade gap that the demand for Indian cotton cloth and clothing had created in the West in Roman times had persisted a millennia later
 * India textile trade to the West
 * different kinds of cotton cloth, from calico to chintz and muslin
 * were easily washed and inexpensive, winning a large market among working and middle classes in Britain and elsewhere in Europe
 * in the regions of Queen Mary and Queen Anne, fine Indian cloth came into fashion at the court as well
 * the court and central bureaucracy were supported by revenues drawn from the tribute paid by the military retainers and from taxes in lands set aside for the support of the imperial household ||
 * S || **MI: Beginning in Akbar's reign, the social aspect of the Mughals improves, esp. for women, with the right for widows to remarry, venture out of the household, and prohibition of underage marriage. Post Akbar's reign, these freedoms reverted back to its previous limitations of seclusion within the home, underage marriage, and others.**
 * **Akbar** pushed for social changes that he believed would greatly benefit his subjects.
 * beyond public works, Akbar sought to improve the calendar, establish living quarters for the large population of beggars and vagabonds in the cities, and to regulate consumption of alcohol
 * changed positions of women
 * encouraged widow remarriage, at the point taboo for both Hindus and Muslims, and discouraged child marriages
 * the latter were so widespread among the upper classes that he did not try to outlaw them, and its doubtful that his disapproval did much to curb the practice
 * legally prohibited **sati**, the burning of high-caste Hindu women on their husbands' funeral pyres
 * tried to provide relief for women trapped in **purdah**, or seclusion in their homes, by encouraging the merchants of Delhi and other cities to set aside special markets for women only
 * Akbar:
 * encouraged intermarriage b/t Mughal aristocracy and the families of the Hindu Rajput rulers
 * promoted Hindus to the highest ranks of government, ended a longstanding ban on the building of new Hindu temples, and ordered Muslims to respect cows, which the Hindu majority viewed as sacred
 * Muslim and Hindu warrior aristocrats who formed the core of the supporters of the Mughal dynasty were granted peasant villages for their support
 * required to maintain a specified number of cavalry and to be on call if the emperor needed their services
 * the court and central bureaucracy were supported by revenues drawn from the tribute paid by the military retainers and from taxes in lands set aside for the support of the imperial household
 * wives took advantage of their husband's neglect of politics to win positions of power and influence at Mughal court
 * Jahangir's wife, **Nur Jahan**, amassed power as he became more and more addicted to wine and opium
 * Shah Jahan's consort, Mumtax Mahal, became involved in court politics
 * although position of women at Mughal court improved in the middle years of the dynasty's power, that of woemn in the rest of Indian society decline
 * child marriage grew more populat, age limit lowered
 * widow marriage among Hindus nearly died out
 * seclusion more and more enforce for upper-caste women, Hindu and Muslim
 * were physically abused if ventured outside of home
 * tax fell heavily on Hindu poor and in some cases, drove them to support sectarian movements that rose to resist Aurangzeb ||
 * P || **MI: The political setup of the Mughal Empire was a government of one ruler, with an administration that presided over designated areas, as long as they swore loyalty and service to him. Eventually, the empire geared towards decline as a result of corruption, and to solve this, expansion took place. As rulers expanded, however, internal rebellions began.**
 * government centered around a single ruler and an administration
 * Muslim and Hindu warrior aristocrats who formed the core of the supporters of the Mughal dynasty were granted peasant villages for their support
 * <span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">required to maintain a specified number of cavalry and to be on call if the emperor needed their services
 * the court and central bureaucracy were supported by revenues drawn from the tribute paid by the military retainers and from taxes in lands set aside for the support of the imperial household
 * founder of Mughal dynasty**: Babur**
 * succeeded by son, Humayan in 1530
 * 1540 - armies shattered, forced to flee to Persia
 * followed by **Akbar**, a great military commander with great personal courage
 * ascended to throne at age 13
 * presided over the building of military and administrative systems that would form the backbone of the Mughal empire for centuries
 * carried out many social reforms and invented his own universalistic religion
 * 1560- extended the empire through conquests, to north and central India
 * pursued policy of reconciliation and cooperation with the Hindu princes and the Hindu majority of the population of his realm
 * abolished the jizya, or head tax, that earlier Muslim rulers had levied on Hindu nonbelievers
 * by end of **Aurangzeb's** reign
 * internal rebellions
 * **Marattas** in wester India put an end to effective Mughal control over large areas
 * new rise of sects like the **Sikhs** in northwest, further strained the declining resources of an imperial system that was overextended ||
 * I || **MI: Much of Mughal interactions were centered around trade, with contacts in Asia and Europe, as well as conquest and expansion of the empire.**
 * trade:
 * India's location enabled it to trade and interact with Asia and Europe
 * trade cloths among other materials
 * conquest:
 * Akbar expanded the Mughal empire northward ||
 * R || **MI: The two religions in the Mughal Empire were Hindu and Muslim, and Akbar attempted to unite the two faiths through the introduction of Din-i-llahi.**
 * blended elements of many religions
 * Akbar invented new faith, **Din-i-Ilahi**, that believed could be used to unite his Hindu and Muslim subjects
 * reasoned that if the adherents of India's diverse religions could be convinced to embrace this common creed, sectarian quarrels and even violent conflict could be brought to end ||
 * I || **MI: Mughal intellect involved the advance infrastructure built by rulers, as well as the games and forms of entertainment they devised.**
 * polo matches, ox, tiger, elephant fights, games of pachisi
 * Jahangir and Shah Jahan devoted massive resources to building architecture
 * Taj Mahal, which became symbol for India itself
 * audience hall in Red Fort at Delhi
 * Akbar's tomb at Sikandra
 * tomb of Itimad al-Dowleh at Agra ||
 * T || **MI: Technology in the Mughal empire focused on cloth production for trade Asia and Europe, as well as architecture, consisting of combined traditions of Persian and Hindu.**
 * cloth --> cotton, calico, modern day cotton for pajamas
 * architecture
 * blends of Persian and Hindu traditions
 * Islamic: domes, arches, minarets
 * with
 * Hindu love of ornament
 * ceramic tiles, white marble, semiprecious stones, arranged in floral/ geometric patterns ||

003: Safavids ESPIRIT:



 * E || **MI: Under Abbas I, mosques and other types of infrastructure were restored. There was also an increase in production of goods, such as silk, as a result of workshops, and trade with neighboring as well as overseas nations was encouraged.**
 * built/ restored mosques, religious schools, financed public works projects
 * Abbas I surpassed them all
 * built network of roads and rest houses
 * strove to make merchants and travelers safe w/in his domains
 * set-up workshops to manufacture silk textiles and Persian carpets
 * encouraged Iranian merchants to trade w/ Muslim neighbors, India, China, Portuguese, Dutch, and English ||
 * S || **MI: Safavid society, much like the Ottoman was comprised of a warrior nobility, recruited army slave boys, and an absolute monarchy. Women's right and position in society was low, being a result of the patriarchal society that existed in the empire**
 * <span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">**Tahmasp I** and his successors made constant efforts to maintain Turkic chiefs
 * <span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">changed into warrior nobility comparable to that in Ottoman domains
 * <span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-left: 3em; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">warrior nobles assigned villages, whose peasants were required to supply them and their troops with food and labor
 * <span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-left: 3em; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">most powerful warrior leaders occupied key posts in imperial administration, and after defeat at Chaldiran, posed a threat to Safavid monarchs
 * <span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-left: 3em; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">counterbalance: rulers recruited Persians for positions at the court in constantly expanding bureaucracy
 * <span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">recruited into the bureaucracy, army slave boys captured in campaigns in southern Russia
 * <span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
 * <span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">court rituals and exalted position of Safavid shahs
 * <span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">abandoned pretense of egalitarian camaraderie that marked their earlier dealings with warrior chiefs, the Safavids took grand titles, such as **padishah**, or kings
 * <span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Safavids presided over high thrones and elegant palaces with servants and courtiers
 * <span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">elaborate court rituals, social interaction governed by refined sense of etiquette and decorum
 * <span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">absolute monarchy
 * <span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">women faced legal and social advantages
 * <span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">within the family, women were subordinated to their fathers and husbands
 * <span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">seldom had political or religious power, and they had surprisingly meager outlets for artistic or scholarly expression
 * <span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">wives and concubines of rulers and royal princes continued to exert influence behind the throne and were involved in palace conspiracies
 * <span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">ordinary women were involved in trade and money-lending
 * <span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">court records reveal that women protected their rights to inheritance, decent treatment of spouses, and divorce in marital situations
 * <span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">travelers to Persia during Abbas I wore brightly colored robes worn by women
 * <span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">women made no effort to cover their faces ||
 * P || **MI: Safavid government consisted of an absolute monarchy, and was centered around land acquisition and preventing Turkic chiefs from gaining supreme power.**
 * 14th century: Sufi, **Sail al-Din** began militant campaign to purify and reform Islam and spread Muslim teachings among Turkic tribes of region
 * he and other leaders gained support as Mongol authority collapsed in 14th century
 * Red Heads- mid-15th century - preached **Shi'a** doctrines and their enemies multiplied
 * 1501 : **Isma'il** led Turkic followers to a string of victories on the battlefield
 * took city of Tabriz, and was proclaimed shah
 * conquered most of Persia, drove Ozbegs into central Asian steppes
 * <span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">August 1514 - met in battle at **Chaldiran** in northwest Persia
 * <span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">religious battle - Safavid persecutions of Sunnis and slaughter of Shi'a living in Ottoman territories by Ottoman sultan, Selim
 * <span style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">battle also revealed importance of muskets, field cannon, and gunpowder --> Isma'il cavalry not on par with well-equipped Ottomans
 * **Tahmasp I** (1534-1576):
 * took throne and set about restoring the power of the dynasty
 * Turkic chiefs foiled in bid for supreme power
 * Ozbegs driven from Safavid domain
 * his successors made constant efforts to maintain Turkic chiefs
 * changed into warrior nobility comparable to that in Ottoman domains
 * **Shah Abbas I**(1587-1629):
 * empire reached pinnacle, but no new territorial gains
 * **Abbas I**: converted slave army boys to Islam
 * formed backbone of military forces and granted provincial governorships and high offices at court
 * Safavid shahs continued claims to divinity began by Isma'il, continuing to claim descent from on of the Shi'a **imams**, or successors of Ali
 * shahs relied on Persian religious scholars who entered into the service of the state and were paid by the government
 * Mullahs, local mosque officials and prayer leaders, were supervised by the state and received support from it
 * After Abbas, a weak grandson, who was considered easily manipulated, took the throne
 * decline
 * **Abbas II** (1642-1666)
 * unable to halt decline of imperial administration
 * factional disputes, rebellion, nomadic raiders
 * **Nadir Khan Afshar:**
 * soldier- adventurer who began leading Safavid restoration, was unsuccessful and Safavid empire eventually ended ||
 * I || **MI: Safavid interactions focused on religious incentives, which was caused by the dissenting views of the Sunni Ottomans and the Shi'a Safavids. Under Abbas I, trade with other regions was encouraged.**
 * Shi'a-Sunni supporters
 * Shi'a Safavids v.s. Sunni Ottoman
 * August 1514 - met in battle at **Chaldiran** in northwest Persia
 * religious battle - Safavid persecutions of Sunnis and slaughter of Shi'a living in Ottoman territories by Ottoman sultan, Selim
 * battle also revealed importance of muskets, field cannon, and gunpowder --> Isma'il cavalry not on par with well-equipped Ottomans
 * slave army boys captured from Russia and recruited into bureaucracy
 * Abbas the Great converted them to Islam
 * March 1722, Isfahan beseiged by Afghani tribes
 * Oct. - 80,000 died of starvation/ disease and ended Safavid power
 * Abbas I encouraged Iranian merchants to trade w/ Muslim neighbors, India, China, Portuguese, Dutch, and English ||
 * R || **MI: The Safavids were supported of the Shi'a variant of Islam, which led it to battle with the Sunni Ottoman.**
 * Shi'a variant of Islam
 * originated from Sufi mystics and religious preachers, whose shrine center was at Ardabil near Caspian Sea
 * **Red Heads** preached Shi'a doctrines
 * All religious leaders required to curse the first 3 caliphs and mention Safavid ruler in the Friday sermon ||
 * I || **MI: Safavid intellect was centered around the use of Persian language, casting of iron weapons with the help of European infidels, and intricate architectural designs.**
 * Abbas called on infidel Europeans for assistance in wars w/ Ottomans
 * Sherley brothers from England --> provided instruction for casting of cannons and trained Abbas' slave infantry and a special regiment of musketeers recruited from Iranian peasantry
 * Safavid family originally of Turkic stock
 * preferred to write in Persian
 * Persian also supplanted Turkish as language of court and bureaucracy
 * Abbas I capital at Isfahan
 * laid out around great square, lined with two-story shops interspersed with great mosques, government offices, and soaring arches that opened onto formal gardens
 * founed several colleges and oversaw numerous public baths and rest houses
 * great mosque covered in ceramic tiles, adorned with geometric designs, floral patterns, and verse from the Qur'an written in Arabic on blue tiles
 * Persian artisans combined graceful arches, greenery, colorful designs, creating lush, cool refuges ||
 * T || **MI: Technology during the Safavid empire included firearms/ iron weapons, and the architectural improvements, such as the restoration of mosques, building of roads, and other improvements.**
 * firearms --> artillery handguns
 * muskets, field cannons, gunpowder
 * great mosque covered in ceramic tiles, adorned with geometric designs, floral patterns, and verse from the Qur'an written in Arabic on blue tiles ||